Author response:

Public Reviews:

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

This study demonstrates, through a series of EEG and MEG experiments, that the human brain automatically categorizes words from alphabetic and non-alphabetic languages, and it unpacks the neural mechanisms of this process from multiple angles. The work examines not only univariate repetition-suppression (RS) effects, but also how repeating or alternating languages influences the representational similarity of words within and across language categories.

Strengths:

The univariate RS effects across multiple experiments lend support to some of the main conclusions

Weaknesses:

I have reservations about the logic underlying the multivariate analyses, and I believe the implications of the control experiments merit fuller discussion.

(1) Question 1: Logic of the multivariate analyses

The original text states:

"The processing of intra-language similarity was quantified as correlation distances between neural responses to two words of the same language, which occurred more frequently and would be inhibited in the Rep-Cond (vs. Alt-Cond) due to habituation (Fig. 1c)...".

I argue that this passage conflates two levels. Building a representational dissimilarity matrix (RDM) is a data-analysis step; it cannot be equated with a cognitive computation. Hence, there is no sense in which this computation occurs "more frequently" in one condition. RDM construction rests on the pairwise similarity of activity patterns, so even if a task engaged no cognitive computation of representational similarity, we could still compute an RDM. Conversely, if a task factor alters the RDM, we must explain how that factor changes the underlying neural patterns, not claim that it triggers specific cognitive processing. Therefore, I neither understand what "more frequent processing" the authors refer to, nor accept their account of the multivariate results.

The multivariate result pattern, briefly, is that distances between words, both within and across languages, are larger under the repetition condition. One plausible interpretation is that a word representation comprises two parts: language-type (alphabetic vs. non-alphabetic) and fine-grained identity features (visual shape, orthography, semantics, phonology, etc.). Repetition of language type may, via RS, reduce the weight of the first component, thereby increasing the relative contribution of fine-grained features and amplifying inter-word differences. This could explain the multivariate findings.

Thank you for these insightful comments regarding the logic of the multivariate analyses. In the revision, we will clarify that the multivariate analyses were conducted to assess correlation distances between neural responses to pairs of words, either within the same language or across different languages. The processing of intra-language similarity was assessed rather than defined by conducting the multivariate analyses. We will further elaborate the rationale underlying our experimental design, specifically why the processing of intra-language similarity is expected to occur more frequently in the repetition condition (Rep-Cond) than in the alternation condition (Alt-Cond).

We also appreciate the alternative account of the observed neural repetition suppression (RS) effects in terms of language-type versus fine-grained identity feature processing. This perspective will be incorporated into the revised Discussion. In particular, we will outline the patterns of neural activity predicted by an account that assumes an increasing contribution of fine-grained features, and evaluate the extent to which our findings are consistent with these predictions.

(2) Question 2:

For unlearned languages, people cannot distinguish lexical from sub-lexical levels. What, then, determines (i) the RS-effect difference between letters and radicals in familiar languages and words in unlearned ones, and (ii) the similarity of repetition effects between words in unlearned and familiar languages? An explicit account is needed.

Thank you for this helpful suggestion. In the revised manuscript, we will include a dedicated paragraph addressing these two issues. Specifically, we will provide a more precise account of the differences in repetition suppression (RS) effects between letters and radicals in familiar languages, as well as the similar RS effects observed for unlearned and familiar languages. These additions will help clarify the interpretation of the neural RS effects associated with visual word processing and strengthen the theoretical implications of our findings.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Summary:

This study investigates how the human brain categorizes visual words from distinct writing systems (alphabetic vs. non-alphabetic) as a neural basis for the social-categorization function of language. Using a repetition suppression paradigm combined with electroencephalography and magnetoencephalography, the authors conducted nine experiments with independent participants to identify the neural network underlying language-based categorization, characterize its temporal dynamics, and test whether this process operates independently of linguistic properties such as semantic meaning and pronunciation.

Strengths:

(1) The study employs a well-validated design with clear control conditions and systematically manipulates key variables, including writing system, language familiarity, and native language background. The use of nine experiments with independent participant samples strengthens the reliability and replicability of the results.

(2) The work combines EEG and MEG, cross-validating findings across imaging modalities to support the reported neural effects. A combination of univariate, multivariate, and connectivity analyses is used to characterize neural responses and network interactions.

(3) Results are consistent across multiple language groups and for both familiar and unfamiliar languages, supporting the generalizability of the identified neural mechanism beyond specific languages or prior experience.

Weaknesses:

The authors provide compelling evidence that the identified neural network supports the categorization of words by language, including computations of intra-language similarity and inter-language difference. However, the conceptual framing of this finding as directly reflecting the social-categorization function of language may be premature. While the task captures spontaneous language categorization, it does not involve social evaluation or intergroup processes. The connection to social categorization is inferred from prior literature rather than demonstrated within the current experimental design. Clarifying this distinction would strengthen the conceptual precision of the manuscript.

Thank you for raising this important point. In the revised Discussion, we will include an additional paragraph to clarify several related issues. First, prior research suggests that language can serve as a socially relevant category cue. Second, these findings imply that rapid categorization of words by language may occur in the human brain. Third, our results identify a neural network supporting such rapid language-based categorization but do not directly test how this process relates to social categorization. Highlighting these points will help delineate the scope of our findings and point to important directions for future research.

We'll work on a revision of the manuscript and will submit the revision when it's ready.

Figures and data

Illustrations of the RS paradigm and univariate/multivariate analyses of brain activities in response to words.

EEG results of Chinese speakers in Experiment 1.

MEG results combined Chinese and English words across Chinese and English speakers in Experiments 7a and 8a.

Results of the analyses of the global network RDM across Chinese and English speakers in Experiments 7a and 8a.

Results of the analyses of local RDMs across Chinese and English speakers in Experiments 7a and 8a.

Results of GCA and linear regression analyses across Chinese and English speakers in Experiments 7a and 8a.