The anticipation of rewards turns out to have its own hedonic value, on top of that of the reward itself; a wide range of behavioral and neurophysiological data suggest that this anticipation is boosted by prediction errors.

A new type of implicit effects on one's actions induced by prediction errors during action observation is discovered.

Activity in the midbrain responds to unexpected changes in outcome identity (i.e. sensory prediction error) but does not scale with perceptual distance between expected and receipt reward.

Midbrain dopamine neurons in rats signal discrepancies between predicted and actual rewards, regardless of whether the rewards are predicted on the basis of experience or inference.

Despite the fundamental relationship between movement and value, they are represented in a separable manner in dopamine neurons.

Dopamine neurons signal value prediction errors (VPEs) integrating information about both reward and aversion, in low reward contexts, whereas VPEs in some dopamine neurons are distorted in high reward contexts.

Multivariate analyses of human electrophysiological recordings revealed that the brain represents unexpected visual stimuli with greater fidelity than expected stimuli which arose independently of simple habituation arising from repetition.

Changes to sensory predictions are encoded by beta oscillations, surprise due to prediction violations by gamma oscillations, and alpha oscillations may have a role in controlling the precision of predictions.