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Different developmental stages of a venomous animal (e.g. Nematostella vectensis) with a complex life cycle produce vastly different venoms that can serve in different antagonistic interactions with other species.

The insect pathogenic bacterium Photorhabdus has evolved astonishing nano-scale analogues of hypodermic syringes that it uses to inject toxins into host cells.

The centipede peptide toxin SpTx1 blocks the pore of ATP-sensitive potassium channels in pancreatic β cells to markedly enhance insulin secretion and mitigate hyperglycemia in diabetic mice insensitive to the anti-diabetic sulfonylurea glibenclamide.

c-di-GMP and HipH function as a toxin-antitoxin-like module to regulate persister cell formation in bacterial biofilms.

Intrathecal injection of CSF1 induces greater upregulation of spinal microglial genes in male versus female mice, however, Treg depletion enhances microglial activation and restores pain hypersensitivity in the female mice.

Indoxyl sulfate, a key uremic toxin in chronic kidney disease (CKD), induces trained immunity in monocytes via crosstalk between aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-dependent epigenetic reprogramming by enhancement of the arachidonic acid pathway and AhR-independent metabolic rewiring.

Staphylococcus aureus NAD kinase promotes infection by protecting bacteria from host antimicrobial defenses and by supporting production of major virulence factors.

Under normal nutritional conditions, G-protein coupled receptors can control autophagy by regulating the degradation of key autophagic regulator Atg14L through ZBTB16-mediated ubiquitination and proteasome degradation.

Clustering the B cell receptor generates a membrane domain analogous to the liquid-ordered phase, localizing proteins involved in early receptor activation.

Injury at birth induces immature neurons to divide and regenerate cerebellar Purkinje cells in a time-dependent manner.