Paradigm and behavioral results.

(a) Patients were cued by arrows to start turning or reverse movement direction. Stop cues were presented at the end of each sequence. The timing of cues varied with the condition: in the predictable condition, the start cue was always followed by a reverse cue after 4 s and a stop cue after another 4 s (no jitter). In the unpredictable condition, there were either 0, 1, or 2 reversals (equal probability). Cue onset was jittered. CW: clockwise, CCW: counterclockwise. (b) Turning device for motor paradigm. (c) Average movement-aligned wheel speed. Red dotted lines indicate when turning began, was reversed in direction, and halted. (d) Average cue-aligned wheel speed. Red dotted lines indicate when the start, reversal and stop cue appeared, respectively. N = 20.

Regions of interest.

(a, b) 3D source-reconstruction in MNI space. N = 20. White crosses mark the cortical ROIs selected for further analysis based on the strongest relative change in power (a) and the strongest absolute change in coherence (b). (c) All patients’ DBS electrodes, localized with Lead-DBS.

Movement-related beta power modulations in the STN.

(a) Time-frequency spectra of start, reversal, and stop trials for the STN (group average, trials averaged across predictability conditions). Time 0 marks the moment turning began, was reversed in direction, and halted (red lines). The black line in each plot represents the average wheel turning speed (scale: 0-600 deg/s). Power was baseline-corrected (baseline: -1.6-0 s). Hatched lines within black contours indicate significant changes relative to baseline. N = 20. (b) Six examples of individual patients at reversal and stop. Power was baseline-corrected (baseline: -1.6-0 s). Time 0 marks the brief pause of movement occurring during reversals, and movement stop, respectively (red lines). The black line in each plot represents each patient’s trial-average wheel turning speed (scale: 0-600 deg/s; for patient 21, the scale was adapted to 0-750 deg/s). Patient 10: contralateral, predictable; Patient 1: contralateral, unpredictable, Patient 2: contralateral, predictable; Patient 6: ipsilateral, unpredictable; Patient 21: contralateral, unpredictable; Patient 22; ipsilateral, unpredictable.

Cue-aligned beta power modulations in the STN.

Time-frequency spectra of cue-aligned start, reversal, and stop trials for the STN (group average, trials averaged across predictability conditions). Time 0 marks the appearance of the cue to start, reverse or stop turning (red lines). The black line in each plot represents the average wheel turning speed (scale: 0-600 deg/s). Power was baseline-corrected (baseline: -1.6-0 s). Hatched lines within black contours indicate significant changes relative to baseline. N = 20.

Movement-related beta power modulations in M1.

N = 20. (a) Source-localized movement-related modulation of beta power at movement start, reversal, and stop (MNI space, group average, trials averaged across predictability conditions). The hemisphere contralateral to movement is on the left. (b) Time-frequency spectra of start, reversal, and stop trials for M1. Time 0 marks the time point turning began, was reversed in direction, and halted (red lines). The black line in each plot represents the average wheel turning speed (scale: 0-600 deg/s). Power was baseline-corrected (baseline: -1.6-0 s). Hatched lines within black contours indicate significant changes relative to baseline. (c) Lateralization index for M1. LI = 0 corresponds to no lateralization; positive values refer to a contralateral lateralization and negative values to an ipsilateral lateralization. Blue: beta suppression; red: beta rebound.

Cue-aligned beta power modulations in M1.

Time-frequency spectra of cue-aligned start, reversal, and stop trials for M1. Time 0 marks the appearance of the cue to start, reverse or stop turning (red lines). The black line in each plot represents the average wheel turning speed (scale: 0-600 deg/s). Power was baseline-corrected (baseline: -1.6-0 s). Hatched lines within black contours indicate significant changes relative to baseline. N = 20.

Pre-and post-event beta power.

N = 20. (a) Source-localized modulation of beta power before and after movement start, reversal, and stop (-1-0 and 0-1 s with respect to the movement of interest; baseline: power averaged over all time points and movement types). Plots are group-averages in MNI space, trials were averaged across predictability conditions. (b) Relative change with respect to whole recording average baseline, of ipsilateral and contralateral beta power for pre-reversal and post-reversal time windows.

Event-related modulations of STN-cortex coherence and the effect of predictability.

N = 20 (a) Baseline-corrected group average time-frequency representations of STN-cortex coherence (averaged over ROIs) during start, reversal and stop for both the predictable and the unpredictable trials (baseline: -1.6-0 s). Time 0 marks the moment turning began, was reversed in direction, and was halted, respectively (red line). The black line in each plot represents the average wheel turning speed (scale: 0-600 deg/s). Hatched lines within black contours indicate significant changes relative to baseline. (b) Group average coherence difference between the unpredictable and predictable condition. Left: Contrast of time-frequency representations. TFRs were averaged over ROIs. Right: Contrast of source-localized, event-related coherence modulations in the beta band.

Cue-aligned modulations of STN-cortex coherence and the effect of predictability.

Baseline-corrected group average of time-frequency representations of STN-cortex coherence (averaged over ROIs) during start, reversal and stop (cue-aligned) for both the predictable and the unpredictable trials (baseline: -1.6-0 s). Time 0 marks the appearance of the cue to start, reverse or stop turning (red lines). The black line in each plot represents the average wheel turning speed (scale: 0-600 deg/s). Hatched lines within black contours indicate significant changes relative to baseline. N = 20.

Patient clinical characteristics.

Disease duration refers to the time since diagnosis. For patient 4, the time since first symptom manifestation is given. MoCa = Montreal Cognitive Assessment Test.

Behavioral effects.

(A) Effects of condition (predictable, unpredictable) and movement (start, reverse, stop) on movement-aligned speed. (B) Effects of condition (predictable, unpredictable) and movement (start, reverse, stop) on reaction times to cues.

Effects on lateralization.

Effects of modulation type (beta suppression, beta rebound), condition (predictable, unpredictable) and ROI (STN, M1, MSMC) on lateralization index.

Effects on power and coherence.

(A) Effects of condition (predictable, unpredictable), movement (start, reverse, stop) and ROI (contralateral and ipsilateral STN, M1, MSMC) on normalized power, controlling for movement speed (cov). (B) Effects of condition (predictable, unpredictable), movement (start, reverse, stop) and ROI (contralateral STN-M1, contralateral STN-MSMC, ipsilateral STN-M1, ipsilateral STN-MSMC) on coherence modulation, controlling for movement speed (cov).