Human multiple-demand (MD) system.

(a) 9-patch MD system based on mean activation across three dissimilar demands. Data from Human Connectome Project5. Top – inflated cortical surface; bottom – cortical flatmap. (b) Same data – average activation in individual cortical parcels from7. White outlines – core MD parcels5; green outlines – dorsal attention network8; blue outlines – cinguloopercular network8. (c) and (d) 9-patch MD system in independent data – (c) n-back working memory6; (d) mental rotation12.

(a) Human maze. White circle – initial fixation location; blue circles - possible goal locations. (b) Human maze stimuli and timings. Upper: Example problem in the maze condition (outer parts of maze not shown, though present on screen). On each step, yellow dots marked open locations available for selection, with red locations blocked. On receipt of the go signal (blue dot inside white circle), participants made a saccade to one of these yellow locations. The task was to choose the shortest route to the goal. In this example, the goal is reached directly in two steps. In other problems, longer routes were created by enforcing some moves that did not move closer to the goal. Timings for each step were identical. Lower: Control condition. (c) Monkey maze. All problems required just two steps to the goal (brown arrows). (d) Monkey maze stimuli and timings (upper – maze; lower - control). Green locations – open; red locations – blocked.

Behavioral data.

(a) Human. Bars show 95% confidence intervals over participants. (b) Monkeys A (top) and B (bottom). Bars show 95% confidence intervals over sessions.

Contrast of maze minus control: Human data.

(a) t values (thresholded at FDR<0.05) projected onto partially inflated cortical surface (center) and cortical flatmaps (sides). (b) Mean t value (for regions with FDR < 0.05) in individual cortical parcels from 7. Yellow outlines – core MD parcels 5; green outlines – dorsal attention network 8; pink outlines – posterior multimodal network 8. Parcel labels from 7; some omitted to avoid clutter. (c) Mean values in the 12 cortical networks defined by 8. Data are shown separately for core MD and other parcels from the frontoparietal network defined by 8. Horizontal and vertical black lines show mean and 95% confidence intervals; violins show distribution across participants.

Contrast of maze minus control: Monkey data.

Left – cortical flatmap, with projected t values (thresholded at FDR<0.05). Parcel labels according to 27; some omitted to avoid clutter. Right – partially inflated cortical surface.

(a) Monkey data: Contrast of maze minus control warped to human cortical surface. (b) Human data for comparison.

Contrast of maze minus control shown on horizontal slices (slice locations shown on right).

(a) Human. (b) Monkey.