Introduction

The proto-oncogene receptor tyrosine kinase Kit (c-Kit, CD117) is an evolutionarily conserved, loss-of-function intolerant, gene that is enriched in specific neuron populations and tentatively associated with rare cases of neurological dysfunction (pLI= 0.98 and LOEUF of 0.17) (Figure S1A,B) [1, 2]. It is perhaps unsurprising that loss-of-function Kit mutations in humans are rare; Kit is highly pleiotropic, supporting diverse cell populations including melanocytes, hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells, germ cells, masts cell, and interstitial cells of Cajal [3]. Thus, Kit mutations can result in diverse conditions such as hypo- or hyperpigmentation or melanoma, anemia or leukemia, infertility, mastocytosis, and impaired gut motility or gastro-intestinal tumors (Kit biology reviewed [2] [4]).

The activation of Kit is stimulated by Kit Ligand (Gene symbol KITLG, herein KL), a single-pass transmembrane protein having an extracellular active domain that induces Kit dimerization and kinase activity. Across several decades and species, it has been reported that KL and Kit are mutually expressed in discrete neuron populations known to be connected; it has thus been hypothesized that the expression pattern of KL-Kit may reflect a role in connectivity [5-8]. Consistent with such a function, case reports have implicated inactivating Kit mutations with disorders of the central nervous system (References [9-13] and Figure S1C). Clinical phenotypes include developmental delay, ataxia, hypotonia, intellectual disability, deafness, and autism spectrum disorder. White matter abnormalities have been noted, and limited evidence suggests KL-Kit may indeed regulate axon outgrowth. KL or Kit mutation or pharmacological manipulation alters outgrowth of spinal commissural axons in vitro [14], KL stimulates cortical neurite outgrowth in vitro [15], and Kit reduction in cortex of developing rats or mice delays axon extension [16]. While these reports provide anatomical/morphological data suggesting that KL-Kit influences connectivity, these studies did not address consequences to neuronal physiology or synaptic connectivity. Functional studies of KL-Kit in synaptic physiology have likely been hampered by pleiotropy and organismal or cell death. Severe global KL-Kit hypomorphs exhibit fatal anemia, and developmental Kit depletion or inhibition in the cerebrum has resulted in the death of neuronal progenitors or nascent neurons [16-18]. Therefore, whether KL-Kit is necessary for synaptic function has remained largely unstudied. Here, we address this gap.

In mice, rats, and humans, Kit is abundantly expressed by molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) of the cerebellar cortex [6-8, 19], while cerebellar KL is restricted to Purkinje cells (PCs), which MLIs provide GABAergic synaptic inhibition to. We tested the hypothesis that PC KL and MLI Kit were essential to the GABAergic inhibition of PCs. We created a Kit conditional knockout mouse and accomplished embryonic knockout of Kit from MLIs; separately, we knocked out KL from postnatal PCs. By either method, disruption of the KL-Kit pair produced robust and specific impairments to GABAergic inhibition of PCs. Through sparse postnatal viral manipulation of KL in PCs, we provide evidence that KL functions throughout adulthood to regulate synaptic function. These results demonstrate that cell-type specific expression of KL and Kit influences functional connectivity in the mammalian brain, informing the long-observed expression of KL-Kit in the brain and suggesting a rationale for the affiliation of Kit loss with neurological impairment.

Methods

Animals

All procedures performed at Michigan State University were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees of Michigan State University, which is accredited by the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC). Mice were on a 12-hour dark/light cycle, with ad libitum food and water. Male and female mice were used for all experiments. Mice were genotyped in-house using standard PCR-based methods, or via Transnetyx.

Creation of Kit conditional knockout mouse

We generated a strain of mice having exon 4 of Kit flanked by LoxP sites (“floxed”). This was accomplished by utilizing the services of UNC Animal Models Core (Dr. Dale Cowley) to generate chimeras from an ES cell line having a Knockout-first Allele (with conditional potential) for Kit (HEPD0509_8). The ES clones were obtained through the EuMMCR (European Mouse Mutant Cell Repository) of the EUCOMM (European Conditional Mouse Mutagenesis Program) [20]. Chimeric mice were screened for germline transmission of the targeted allele and were then crossed to a Flp deleter strain (C57BL/6N-Albino-Rosa26-FlpO) to convert the knockout-first allele to a conditional allele (tm1c) through removal of the FRT-flanked selection cassette. F1 male offspring carrying Kit tm1c and Flp alleles were crossed to C57Bl6/J females; we selected resultant progeny heterozygous for Kit tm1c but negative for Flp and the selection cassette. The Kit tm1c allele was bred to homozygosity while selecting against animals carrying the Tyr c-Brd allele (previously conveyed by C57BL/6N-Albino-Rosa26-FlpO). The resultant strain of mice having the Kit floxed tm1c allele are given the nomenclature C57BL/6N−Kit^{tm1c(EUCOMM)Mirow}/J; the Mirow lab code is registered through the National Academies to the author and principal investigator herein, Michael Roland Williams. Additional strains of mice used were Pax2-Cre transgenic mice (STOCK Tg(Pax2-cre)1Akg/Mmnc, RRID:MMRRC_010569-UNC [21], Kit eGFP (Tg(Kit-EGFP)IF44Gsat/Mmucd; Gensat) [22] backcrossed for greater than 5 generations to C57Bl6/J (Stock No: 000664, The Jackson Laboratory), KitL floxed (Kitltm2.1Sjm/J, Stock #017861) [23], and Pcp2-Cre (Stock # 004146) mice [24], via The Jackson Laboratory.

To produce mixed litters of “Control” and “Kit KO” animals, mice homozygous for the Kit tm1c allele but negative for Pax2-Cre were crossed to mice homozygous for the floxed allele and Pax2-Cre positive. We used Kit KO females crossed to Control males as our breeding scheme. Experimental animals were derived from at least 5 generations of backcrossing Kit KO animals to Kit tm1c homozygous animals derived from a separate (Kit tm1c homozygous x Kit tm1c homozygous) breeding cohort.

Validation of Kit knockout

We investigated conditional knockout of Kit protein from the cerebellum by Western blot of total protein lysates from acutely harvested cerebellums (∼P52) and by indirect immunofluorescence on free-floating vibratome-generated sections of transcardial-perfused formaldehyde-fixed mouse brains (∼P31). Western blots were probed with Rabbit: α-Kit (1:1000, clone D13A2, Cell Signaling Technologies product 3074), α-GAPDH (1:2000, Clone 14C10, product 2118 Cell Signaling Technology), or α-parvalbumin antibody (1:3000, product PV-27, Swant), each primary was detected via HRP conjugated Goat α-Rabbit secondary antibody (1:4000, Bio-Rad, product 170-6515) after incubation with Clarity ECL substrate (Bio-Rad, 1705061), via a Bio-Rad ChemiDoc MP.

For subsequent imaging and electrophysiology, we focused on lobule IV/V of the cerebellar cortex, as this area was superficially accessible for surgery, and provided a consistent area for focused comparisons between animals that would reduce the influence of spatial variations in KL or Kit expression.

For indirect immunofluorescence, primary antibodies were rat α-Kit (1:500, Rat α-Kit clone ACK4, ThermoFisher, product MA5-17836), mouse α-calbindin (1:2000, α-calbindin-D28K, CB-955, Sigma Aldrich), and rabbit α-parvalbumin (1:500, PV-27, Swant). Primaries were detected by Goat-host highly cross-adsorbed secondary antibodies coupled to Alexa 488, Cy3, or Alexa 647 (1:400, Jackson ImmunoResearch). Nuclei were labeled with DAPI, tissues were mounted in an anti-fade reagent, and fluorescent signals captured laser scanning confocal microscopy. Cell densities for MLIs (parvalbumin positive and/or calbindin negative somas of the molecular layer) were performed on Maximum Z-projections of 2.5 to 2.6 micron thick stacks, using the multi-point feature for counting somas, and the polygon ROI tool for determining the area of the Molecular Layer in which the somas were counted; results from two-technical replicates were averaged for each animal. The polygon tool was also used for determining maximal PSD-95+ pinceau area. To determine the width of the molecular layer, seven linear ROIs per field of view of comparable locations of lobules IV/V were averaged to generate per animal layer thickness measurements. For analysis of synapses, we quantified puncta (of 0.05-5 μm² using the Analyze Particles function) in the molecular layer that were triple positive (each channel auto-threshold) for rabbit α-VGAT(1:500, 131 003), mouse α-Gephyrin (1:5000, 147 011), and Chicken α-Calbindin (1:500, 214 006), all from Synaptic Systems. For analysis of pinceau markers we utilized mouse α-Kv1.1 (1:250, K36/15), Kv1.2 (1:250, K14/16), and PSD-95 (1:200, K28/43), all from NeuroMab/AntibodiesInc.

Stereotaxic Procedures

Injections of replication-defective viral particles used protocols substantially similar to those previously published [25]. In brief, mice were brought to an anesthetic plane using inhaled isoflurane by a low-flow system (SomnoSuite, Kent); thermal regulation was assisted by heating pad, and pain managed through topical lidocaine and by intraperitoneal ketoprofen. A digital stereotaxic device (Kopf) and reference atlas were used to localize a small hole in the skull; cerebellar coordinates were: neonates; A/P, -2.55; M/L, - 1.1 (reference Lambda), D/V, 1.5 to 0.5 from dura; juvenile; A/P, -6.25; M/L, - 1.35; D/V, 1.5 to 0.75 (reference Bregma); adults; A/P, -6.35; M/L, - 1.8; D/V, 1.5 to 0.75 (reference Bregma). Viral particles were delivered via a ∼30-gauge Hamilton Syringe controlled by digital syringe pump (WPI). The infused virus volume was 1-2 ul and there was a 5-minute period after infusion prior to needle withdrawal. Animals were monitored during and after operations. Ages for injection were, nominally, postnatal day (P) 7, 19, and 56; for P7 and P19, variability of up to two days was utilized to accommodate differences in animal size, and for P56 the eighth week of life was utilized.

Viruses

Lentiviral particles were derived from our vectors previously described to express transgenes under the hUbiC promoter and pseudotyped with VSV-G [26, 27]. Silent mutations disrupted the internal EcoRI sites of mouse KitL (MC204279, OriGene), the KitL coding sequence was then flanked by EcoRI sites, and the subsequent KitL coding sequence was introduced into a FUC-T2A-(EcoRI) plasmid, to create a FUC-T2A-KL-1 plasmid, wherein C designates mCherry. Subsequent deletion of KitL Exon 6 generated a KL-2 vector [28-31]. Sequences were verified by sequencing. Adeno-Associated Viral (AAV) particles were created by Vigene to drive Cre expression by the Purkinje Cell-Specific L7.6 promoter [32], or to drive mCherry or mCherry-T2A-KL-2 in a Cre-On fashion under the EF1α promoter, with the AAV1 serotype.

Electrophysiology

For patch clamp electrophysiology of Control vs Kit KO, cells were recorded in slices generated from animals at 36.9 ± 0.6 and 37.4 ± 0.9 days for MLIs and PCs respectively. Analysis of the Pcp2 Cre mediated KL KO tissues was conducted similarly at ∼40-44 days old. For viral PC KL KO animals injected as neonates (P7), juvenile (P19), and adults (P56) were recorded at an average of ∼35, 45, and 83 days old, respectively. Avertin-anesthetized mice were perfused with a carbogen-equilibrated ice-cold slicing solution containing (in mM): 110 C₅H₁₄ClNO, 7 MgCl₂.6H₂O, 2.5 KCl, 1.25 NaH₂PO₄, 25 NaHCO₃, 0.5 CaCl₂-2H₂O, 10 Glucose, and 1.3 Na-Ascorbate. In the same solution, we generated 250-micron thick parasagittal sections of the cerebellum (Leica VT1200). Slices recovered at 34°C for 30 minutes in a carbogenated ACSF containing (in mM): 125 NaCl, 25 NaHCO₃, 1.25 NaH₂PO₄, 2.5 KCl, 1 MgCl₂.6H₂O, 1 CaCl₂-2H₂O and 25 Glucose; slices were then held at room temperature for at least 30 minutes before recording. Recordings were performed in carbogenated external recording ACSF (32.7 ± 0.1°C) containing (in mM): 125 NaCl, 25 NaHCO₃, 1.25 NaH₂PO₄, 2.5 KCl, 1 MgCl₂.6H₂O, 2 CaCl₂-2H₂O and 25 Glucose. MLIs and PCs of folia IV/V were targeted for recording by IR-DIC, or epifluorescence stimulated by a CoolLED pE-4000, detected via a SciCam Pro on a SliceScope Pro 6000-based rig (Scientifica). Recording electrodes were pulled (Narishige, PC-100) from standard-wall borosilicate glass capillary tubing (G150F-4, Warner Instruments) and had 5.1 ± 0.08 and 2.8 ± 0.02 MΩ tip resistance for MLIs and PCs respectively. Spontaneous Inhibitory Postsynaptic Currents (sIPSCs) and Miniature Inhibitory Postsynaptic Currents (mIPSC) were recorded with an intracellular solution containing (in mM):140 CsCl, 4 NaCl, 0.5 CaCl₂-2H₂O, 10 HEPES, 5 EGTA, 2 Mg-ATP, and 0.4 Na-GTP, 2 QX-314. For action potential recordings and for Miniature Excitatory Postsynaptic Currents (mEPSCs), the intracellular solution contained (in mM): 140 K-gluconate, 10 KCl, 1 MgCl₂, 10 HEPES, 0.02 EGTA, 3 Mg-ATP, and 0.5 Na-GTP as described previously [33]. The internal pipette solution pH was adjusted to 7.35 with CsOH for IPSCs and mIPSCs, and with KOH for mEPSCs and action potentials, while for all the osmolarity was adjusted to 300 mOsmolL-1 with sucrose. In whole-cell voltage clamp mode PCs were held at -70 mV; to isolate sIPSCs, CNQX or NBQX (10 μM) and D-AP5 (50 μM) were added to the recording solution and mIPSCs recordings additionally included 1 μM tetrodotoxin (TTX). To record mEPSCs, 1 μM TTX and 50 μM picrotoxin was added to extracellular solution. Action potentials were recorded in MLIs within the middle third of the molecular layer; spontaneous action potentials were recorded in I=0 mode, or action potentials were evoked by depolarizing current injection in 600 ms steps of 10 pA, from 0 to 150 pA, with a 7 second inter-sweep interval. For paired pulse, current ranging from 150 uA to 250 uA was delivered by concentric bipolar stimulating electrode in the molecular layer. Stimulus duration was 50 μS, and ISI was 50 ms. For each cell, 10 sweeps were recorded with 10 S inter-sweep interval. A square-wave voltage stimulation pulse was utilized to determine input resistance and cell capacitance. Purkinje Cells with an access resistance of 10-20 (15.9 ± 0.5), or MLIs with an access resistance <30 (23.6 ± 0.6) MΩ were considered for recording. Recordings with >20% change in series resistance were excluded from analysis. Signals were acquired at 10 KHz with a low-noise data acquisition system (Digidata 1550B) and a Multiclamp700-A amplifier and were analyzed using pClamp11.1 (Molecular Devices) after low pass Bessel (8-pole) filtration (3dB cut off, filter 1 KHz). The minimum amplitude threshold for detecting IPSCs and EPSCs was 15 pA; for mIPSCs and mEPSCs the cutoff was 8 pA. For determining frequency and amplitude, individual events longer than 1 ms were included while overlapping events were manually rejected from analysis. Inhibitory charge is reported as the per-cell sum over the recording epoch of the area under the curve for all pharmacologically resolved inhibitory events. For the analysis of minis, both mIPSCs and mEPSCs with over 8 pA amplitude and longer than 1 ms duration were included while overlapping events were rejected from analysis; also rejected from analysis was any miniature event for which amplitude, rise, and decay metrics were not all available.

Software

Microscopic image processing was conducted via FIJI/ImageJ, electrophysiological data was analyzed by pClamp11.1, statistical analyses were conducted via GraphPad Prism 9, and Figures were created with BioRender, PowerPoint, and GraphPad Prism 9.

Results

We generated mice in which Kit exon 4 is flanked by LoxP sites (Kit tm1c); Kit gene modifications are illustrated in Figure 1C, D. Kit tm1c homozygous Control animals had normal appearance, sex ratios, and reproductive success. Kit is abundantly expressed in parvalbumin positive GABAergic interneurons in the molecular layer of the cerebellar cortex (MLIs), whereas Kit Ligand (KL) is expressed by Purkinje cells (PCs) (Figure 1A, B). To determine if Kit influences synapse function, we conditionally knocked out Kit from MLIs and assessed the MLI:PC synapse. Pax2 is a transcription factor expressed early in the lineage of GABAergic interneurons of the cerebellum [34]; a Pax2-Cre transgene enables embryonic recombination [35, 36]. We generated Kit tm1c homozygous litters of which nominally half were hemizygous for Pax2 Cre (Kit KO) and half were not (Control). We produced Control and Kit KO animals in normal sex and genotype ratios. As expected for the C57Bl6/J background, Control littermates had dark coat and eyes, but littermate Kit KO animals had white whiskers, white fur with variable pigmented patches, and black eyes; example littermates Figure 1E. Given Pax2 expression in melanocytes [37] and the role of Kit in melanogenesis (Reviewed in [38, 39]), the pigmentation phenotype provided gross confirmation of conditional Kit KO. We thus confirmed that cerebella of Kit KO animals were Kit depleted. By immunohistochemistry in Control animals, we recapitulated the known pattern of Kit immunoreactivity in the parvalbumin positive MLIs of the cerebellar cortex (Control, 1F and Inset). In contrast, a sex-matched Kit KO littermate demonstrated loss of cerebellar Kit immunoreactivity (Kit KO, 1F and Inset). In data not shown, we confirmed that both mGlur1/2 and neurogranin positive cerebellar Golgi cells (which share the MLI Pax2+ lineage, and of which some are transiently Kit positive) were still present in the Kit KO condition [34, 40-42]. By Western blot of cerebellar lysates from Control animals, Kit resolved as a major band at ∼120 kD, but in Kit KO littermates, Kit immunoreactivity was lost; GAPDH as loading control was equivalent, as was parvalbumin (which marks mature MLIs and PCs) Figure 1G.

Figure 1:

Having validated that Kit KO animals indeed lacked cerebellar Kit, we then assessed the functional impact. We compared spontaneous GABAergic inhibitory post synaptic currents (sIPSC) in PCs of acute slices generated from ∼P34 Control and Kit KO animals, schema Figure 2A, example traces Figure 2B. Kit KO was associated with a significant change in the distribution of sIPSC event amplitudes (Figure 2C). For each PC of Control or Kit KO conditions, we calculated the average sIPSC event frequency and amplitude, as well as total inhibitory charge transfer over the recording epoch. We determined there was a significant decrease in sIPSC frequency (Figure 2D) and a less severe decrease of sIPSC amplitude and inhibitory charge. This reduced inhibition did not produce obvious impacts to spontaneous PC firing dynamics: we determined (in 29 Control vs 22 Kit KO cells) that PC membrane potential and membrane resistivity were not significantly different, and that per cell average: spontaneous action potential frequency, inter-spike interval (ISI), and ISI CV2 were not significantly different, despite some difference in the distribution of individual ISI across genotypes.(Figure S6). Though circuit consequences of the Kit KO mediated PC disinhibition were thus not immediately apparent, the reduced sIPSC frequency in Kit KO was not associated with changes in the density or distribution of MLIs or in the thickness of the molecular layer (Figure S2).

Figure 2:

Since the number and distribution of MLIs were normal in Kit KO, we sought to determine if the reduced PC inhibition was related to altered MLI physiology (Schema, Figure S3A). However, capacitance, input resistance, and spontaneous or evoked MLI action potential frequency was not different between Control and Kit KO (Figure S3B-E). Since MLIs numbers, distribution, and firing were apparently normal in Kit KO, we sought to determine if there were defects in evoked neurotransmitter release. Direct electrode stimulation of the outer or inner molecular layer in a paired-pulse paradigm (Schema, Figure S3F,J; example traces Figure G,K) evoked IPSCs of equivalent mean amplitude in PCs from Control and Kit KO (Figure S3H,L), and we detected no difference in the paired pulse ratio between conditions (Figure S3I,M). These data suggest that direct stimulation can evoke a similar maximum of release probability between Control and Kit KO conditions. We therefore investigated markers of the MLI:PC synapses to determine if they were altered.

The density and average size of GABAergic synapses onto PCs (triple positive VGAT, Gephyrin, and Calbindin puncta in the molecular layer) was not reduced by Kit KO (example immunofluorescence, Figure S4A, Quantification S4B,C). MLI axon terminals contribute not just to individual axo-dendritic synaptic puncta, but also to interdigitated MLI axon collaterals around the soma and initial axon segment of PCs, forming “pinceaux” structures. By parvalbumin immunoreactivity, these structures were preserved but smaller in Kit KO (arrowheads Figure S4C), and this was confirmed by decreased Kv1.2 (Figure S4D) and PSD-95 (Figure S4E). As PSD-95 immunoreactivity faithfully follows multiple markers of pinceaux size [43], we quantified PSD-95 immunoreactive pinceau area and we determined that pinceaux size was decreased by ∼50% in Kit KO (26 Control vs 43 Kit KO pinceau from n of 5 Control vs 8 Kit KO animals, Figure S4F). These results suggested that Kit KO MLIs may have defects in physical and/or functional maturation of synapses onto PCs.

To evaluate the number of functional GABAergic synapses, we analyzed miniature synaptic currents in acute cerebellar slices, (schema Figure 2 E, F, G; example traces Figure 2 H, I, J). In PCs of Kit KO, there was a significant ∼50% reduction in the average frequency, but not amplitude, of mIPSCs (Figure 2K). In contrast, the average frequency and amplitude of mEPSCs in PCs from Control and Kit KO did not differ (Figure 2L). These data suggested that Kit KO impaired the MLI:PC synapse but did not rule out a general defect in MLI synapse function. As MLIs synapse not just onto PCs, but also onto other MLIs, we evaluated mIPSCs in MLIs. Mean mIPSC frequency and amplitude in MLIs was unchanged between Control and Kit KO (Figure 2M). Therefore, embryonic MLI Kit KO was associated with a specific defect in the number or proportion of functional GABAergic synapses onto PCs. As MLI Kit and PC KL expression is maintained postnatally, we hypothesized that postnatal postsynaptic PC KL KO would phenocopy embryonic presynaptic MLI Kit KO.

We utilized previously described KL floxed [23] and Pcp2-Cre [24] strains to yield mice with Control or KL KO PCs (Schema Figure 3A). We confirmed depletion of cerebellar KL transcripts by rtPCR in data not shown[23], and we confirmed that PC KL KO did not grossly disrupt the pattern of Kit immunoreactivity. Patch clamp of PCs in acute slices revealed that PC KL KO produced significant differences in the distribution of sIPSC event amplitudes (Example traces Figure 3B, Figure 3C). PC KL KO reduced the average sIPSC frequency and amplitude, as well as the total inhibitory charge transfer (“Charge”) recorded in PCs (Figure 3D), without changes to PC capacitance or membrane resistance. The phenotype was specific to GABAergic synapses: there was a substantial reduction in the frequency but not the amplitude of mIPSC events in PCs (Figure 3E). As with Kit KO, we detected no decrease in the per-animal average size or density of triple positive VGAT/Gephyrin/Calbindin synaptic puncta in the molecular layer (n=4 Control vs 4 KL KO animals, mean area 0.249 vs 0.286 μm², p=.1962; mean density 0.045 vs 0.046 per μm², p=.9658), Not Illustrated). We further detected no difference either in PDS-95+ pinceau area (49 Control vs 48 KL KO pinceaux from n=4 Control vs 4 KL KO animals, mean area 57.93 vs 53.37 μm² p=.6036, Not Illustrated). Thus, as with Kit embryonic Kit KO, postnatal KL KO apparently reduced the proportion of functional, if not the absolute structural total, of GABAergic synapse sites upon PCs. In contrast to this impact on GABAergic synapses, the frequency and amplitude of mEPSCs in KL KO PCs was not different vs Controls (Figure 3F). In data not shown, a KS test revealed a significant difference in the individual mEPSC event amplitude distribution (p=0.0002, n=1196 Control vs 1244 KL KO), however the mean mEPSC amplitude was within 1% between conditions. Similarly, a KS test of mIPSC event amplitudes revealed that the mean mIPSC amplitude was ∼10% greater in PC KL KO than in Control (p<0.0001, n=5996 Control vs 3958 KL KO). It is therefore unlikely that decreased event amplitude contributed to the specific and robust >50% decrease in mIPSC frequency detected in PC KL KO. Thus, as with MLI Kit KO, PC KL KO specifically reduced synaptic inhibition of PCs.

Figure 3:

Recombination by Pcp2 Cre begins at ∼P7 [24], whereas Pax2 Cre recombination occurs at ∼E15 [21, 34]. Our results thus suggest that continued expression of the KL-Kit dyad sustains inhibitory drive to PCs. To test this hypothesis (and to avoid transformative effects of Kit overexpression), we tuned KL postnatal expression in vivo.

To determine if acute focal manipulations in KL modulate PC inhibition, we injected replication-defective viruses leveraging the PC-specific L7.6 promoter [32] to express Cre in KL floxed animals, and we identified Cre-positive KL KO PCs by mCherry expression (Schema Figure 4A, Example transduction, Figure S5A-C,E-G). Injections were at P7, P18, or P56; acute slices were generated 2-3 weeks after injections. In the P7 neonatal animals we utilized lentivirus owing to its reduced spread vs AAV particles, which were used for P18 and P56. Patch-clamp recordings in areas of sparse infection revealed that regardless of when KL was depleted, PC KL KO reduced PC sIPSC frequency and inhibitory charge transferred (P7, P18, and P56 in Figure S5 D, H, I; P18 injections Figure 4 B, C, D). We next examined the effects of PC KL over-expression using a complementary strategy. We co-injected L7.6 Cre AAV with AAV encoding EF1α driven Cre-on mCherry and the membrane bound isoform of mouse KL (mKL2) via a T2A element to produce PC KL overexpression (OX) (Schema Figure 4E). Whether at P18 (shown) or P56 (not shown), KL OX PCs had increased sIPSC frequency, amplitude, and inhibitory charge transferred, compared to nearby Control PCs (Figure 4F, G, H). We noted that Control PCs from the PC KL KO paradigm received a similar degree of inhibition (frequency, amplitude, charge) as did PCs from Sham injections. In contrast, while the KL OX PCs received elevated GABAergic input compared to their adjacent Control PCs, the (KL OX) relative local increase in inhibitory drive was not beyond the level of inhibition recorded in PCs from separate Sham animals (Figure 4F, G, H). That is, the local gain in synaptic input to KL OX PCs appears to come at the expense of decreasing inhibition to nearby Control PCs.

Figure 4.

Discussion

For genes essential to survival or reproduction, germline knockout strategies are not feasible for evaluating postnatal physiology. Among such genes, Kit is an example of a highly pleiotropic gene, and so the interpretation of global hypomorphs is challenging and the recombination of conditional alleles outside of desired tissues can lead to lethal or sterile phenotypes. By generating a conditional knockout mouse, we were able to produce viable animals with Kit depleted from the cerebellum to reveal a role in synapse function.

MLI number, distribution, action potential firing, and the density of GABAergic synaptic puncta onto PCs, are all apparently normal in MLI Kit KO. These data suggest that while MLI axon terminals are present in Kit KO, they may be less functional. An increased failure rate between action potential generation and neurotransmitter release would be consistent with the normal firing frequency and synapse puncta density but decreased sIPSC and mIPSC frequency observed. Under the PPR paradigm, the apparently equivalent evoked responses may be due to direct stimulation of axon terminals and/or simultaneous recruitment of multiple MLIs.

Kit KO most directly impacts the MLI:PC synapse, based on seemingly normal miniature events for parallel fiber: PC synapses (mEPSC in PC) and MLI:MLI (mIPSC in MLI) synapses. This is perhaps expected given the cell type specific expression of KL by PCs and Kit by MLIs, however, it is a critical distinction as Cerebellins [44] and Calsystenin [45] impact multiple forms of synaptic input to PCs. It will be informative to determine if the residual inhibitory drive to PCs observed in MLI Kit KO or PC KL KO comes from PC axon collaterals [46-49] whose input we might expect to be preserved if KL-Kit functions primarily to mediate connectivity between different cell types, or perhaps from a subtype of interneuron not dependent upon Kit signaling. This distinction is further relevant since our histological analysis of synaptic puncta does not resolve between MLI:PC and PC:PC synapses, the relative balance of which may be altered by either KL or Kit manipulations. Indeed, future studies of the role of KL-Kit on PC-PC connectivity may inform how PC KL OX can apparently weaken inhibition to adjacent PCs: this may occur through the reduction of inhibitory drive from KL OX PCs to adjacent control PCs. An alternative, and not mutually exclusive possibility is that PC KL OX excessively potentiates MLI Kit to enhance MLI:MLI inhibition, reducing the inhibitory output surrounding MLIs can provide to control PCs.

Though such important nuances of the circuit mechanisms remain to be elucidated, our results demonstrate that the KL-Kit axis, from embryonic development through young adulthood, can alter GABAergic drive to PCs. These results suggest that KL-Kit may be necessary to maintain, and perhaps capable of modulating, MLI:PC GABAergic inhibition in the adult cerebellum. As each MLI (e.g. basket cell) has axon collaterals that can target multiple PCs, and as each PC can receive input from multiple MLIs, it is interesting to speculate that dynamics (e.g. in the expression or shedding) of KL may act through presynaptic Kit to tune the degree of convergent MLI:PC inhibitory drive. This would complement existing forms of modulation at the MLI:PC synapse, such as those dependent on other PC derived signaling molecules, like endocannabinoids [50-52] or peptides like secretin [53, 54] and CR [55]. The physiology of PCs, and the structure of MLI:PC inhibition, also varies over zones such as those identified by Zebrin-II and PLC β4 [56-60]; whether there is functional variation in KL or Kit expression, signaling, or dependency, remains to be determined. Though we have demonstrated a role in synaptic GABAergic inhibition, it is currently unknown whether Kit signaling also plays a role in other forms of inhibition in the cerebellar cortex, such as MLI:MLI gap-junctions, or MLI:PC ephaptic coupling. The latter may be suggested by the Kit KO mediated reduction in Kv1.1/Kv.12 and PSD-95 immunoreactivity.

While KL-Kit clearly influences synaptic function, we do not yet know the molecular mechanisms involved. Kit is a receptor tyrosine kinase that can activate multiple downstream effectors including Src family kinases, PLC, PI3K/mTOR, and the MAPK pathway, the latter two notable here for their shared affiliation with synapse phenotypes and autism spectrum disorder. Investigation of the interactome of Kit under basal and KL manipulated conditions may inform the receptor kinase cascades through which Kit signaling sustains synaptic function. It also plausible that trans-cellular interactions between KL and Kit may function in a kinase-independent, cell adhesion molecule modality [61, 62]. There is a substantial literature illustrating the importance of adhesion molecules in the organization and maintenance of MLI:PC inhibition, such as neurexins/neuroligins, dystrophin/dystroglycan, semaphorins, and neurofascins [44, 45, 63-67]. Much of what is understood about these molecules in the maintenance of PC inhibition is revealed by post-synaptic phenotypes; that is, cis-and trans interacting proteins that, via gephyrin, maintain the organization of PC GABA_A receptors. It is notable therefore that MLI Kit or PC KL KO has a more predominant effect on mIPSC frequency than on amplitude, suggesting a presynaptic phenotype.

Despite the reduced PC inhibition resulting from MLI Kit KO or from PC KL KO, we have not observed overt cerebellar signs (i.e., ataxia). We suspect that this is due to compensation. Even the developmental ablation of functional GABA_A channels in PCs does not produce overt motor signs, while adulthood ablation can [68]. Thus, we might unmask behavioral phenotypes if KL or Kit KO is delayed until adulthood. Consistent with the interpretation that developmental compensation may be involved, the impact of postnatal PC KL KO on inhibitory drive to PCs is more pronounced than embryonic MLI Kit KO. Beyond direct inhibition of PCs, MLI:PC GABAergic inhibition constrains granule cell mediated PC dendritic excitation and thus gates the conversion of PC LTD to LTP at the PF-PC synapse in motor learning [69, 70]. It is therefore possible that KL or Kit KO may only reveal phenotypes in motor learning (or other cerebellar-plasticity dependent) behaviors; speaking to the feasibility of this possibility, global hypomorphs for KL or Kit have altered hippocampal neurophysiology and learning performance on a Water Maze task [71-73]. Continuous expression of KL and Kit in specific neurons may thus reflect not only a role in the development (or maintenance) of synaptic function as suggested here, but also in the plastic modulation of synaptic strength.

Despite the importance of future works to determine molecular mechanisms and organismal consequences, our study is a discrete advance because it establishes that KL-Kit regulates mammalian central synapse function. Here, we demonstrate impacts at the mouse GABAergic MLI:PC synapse; however, Kit and KL exist in diverse organisms and neuronal populations including glutamatergic neurons of the hippocampus, and neurons in olfactory bulb, basal forebrain, and brainstem. It is therefore feasible that the synaptic phenotypes reported here reflect that KL-Kit is broadly capable of influencing connectivity.

Supplementary Information

Six Figures and Associated Legends

Figure S1:

Figure S2:

Figure S3:

Figure S4:

Figure S5:

Figure S6.