Figures and data
Specimens of miliolid foraminifera, identified as Pseudolachlanella eburnea (d’Orbigny), used for experimental studies. (A, B) SEM, (C, D) transmitted light microscope, and (E, F) stereomicroscope images. White arrows show the outer organic sheath of a new chamber during its gradual calcification expressed by its gradual appearance from complete transparency to milky and opaqueaspect (E, F). Black arrows indicate a small mass of cytoplasm extruded from the aperture of exiting the chamber. Green arrows point to incorporated algae.
Fluorescence images of living P. eburnea conducted by Laser Scanning Microscopy. A - Cell impermeable Calcein (cyan) indicating endocytotic seawater vesicles, see Movie 1. B - FM1-43 membrane dye indicating endocytotic vesicles (red), see Movie 2. C, E - LysoGlow84 indicating acidic vesicles (navy blue), autofluorescence of chloroplasts (green), and Mg-ACC pools (red), see Movies 3 and 4, (note the overlap of ACC and acidic vesicles is marked in lilac). D - Autofluorescence image with reduced threshold of the studied Miliolida species (exc. 405 nm) showing algal chlorophyll (blue) and CaCO3 (red), both ACC and calcite shell.
SEM images of the major steps of the formation of P. eburnea shell-building components. Test cross-section showing: (A, B) carbonate nanograins within organic matrix, (C, D) nanograins merging into needle-like mesocrystals, (E) fully developed needle-shaped elements; pn –nanograins partly transformed to short needles.
SEM images showing successive stages of new chamber formation in P. eburnea. (A) outer organic sheath, (B) mineralized outer organic sheath, (C) calcite nanograins within a gel-like organic matrix, (D) needle-shaped mesocrystal growth, (E) needle-like calcite building elements, (F) nanogranular intrados.
Simplified model of porcelaneous wall construction based on foraminifer P. eburnea. White spots labeled as Mg-ACC represent vesicles with Mg-rich amorphous calcium carbonates.
