Earliest evidence for fruit consumption and potential seed dispersal by birds
Figures
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig1-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
Jeholornis STM 3–8.
(A) Left and (B) right views of the 3D reconstructed model of the skull. (C) Left and (D) ventral views of the reassembled 3D model of the skull. (E) Left and (F) ventral views of the 2D cranial reconstruction. (G) Photograph of the skull. (H) Dorsal view of the reassembled 3D model of the mandible. Abbreviations: 1. premaxilla; 2. nasal; 3. preorbital ossification; 4. lacrimal; 5. maxilla; 6. jugal; 7. quadratojugal; 8. frontal; 9. braincase; 10. squamosal; 11. postorbital; 12. scleral ring; 13. quadrate; 14. dentary; 15. surangular; 16. angular; 17. splenial; 18. vomer; 19. palatine; 20. pterygoid; 21. potential ectopterygoid. Different bones are indicated by different colours. Dashed lines indicate the elements not preserved but suspected to exist. Scale bar equals 5 mm.
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig1-figsupp1-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
Photograph of the whole slab of Jeholornis STM 3–8.
Scale bar equals 10 mm.
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig2-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
PCA result of 3D mandible shape (A, B) and 2D skull shape (C, D) with the diets of extant birds divided into Seed-crackers (parrots), Seed-crackers (passerines), Seed-grinders, Fruit eaters, and Other diets.
Different diet categories are indicated by different colours, and key samples are labelled with generic names.
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Figure 2—source data 1
Descriptions of cranial and upper jaw landmarks and semi-landmarks (following Bjarnason and Benson, 2021).
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/74751/elife-74751-fig2-data1-v1.docx
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Figure 2—source data 2
Descriptions of mandible landmarks and semi-landmarks (following Bjarnason and Benson, 2021).
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/74751/elife-74751-fig2-data2-v1.docx
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Figure 2—source data 3
Euclidean distances in the full multivariate shape space of the mandible shape analysis.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/74751/elife-74751-fig2-data3-v1.csv
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Figure 2—source data 4
Euclidean distances in the full multivariate shape space of the skull shape analysis.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/74751/elife-74751-fig2-data4-v1.csv
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig2-figsupp1-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
Landmark and semi-landmark locations in Menura novaehollandiae as an example of modern taxa used in geometric morphometric (GMM) analyses (following Bjarnason and Benson, 2021).
Black labels indicate the description names, and blue labels below indicate the names in R.
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig2-figsupp2-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
PCA result of 3D mandible (A, B) and 2D skull shape (C, D) with the diets of extant birds divided into Seed-crackers (parrots), Seed-crackers (passerines), Seed-grinders, Fruit eaters, and Other diets and all the generic names labelled.
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig2-figsupp3-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
PCA result of 3D mandible (A, B) and 2D skull shape (C, D) with the diets of extant birds divided into Probing for invertebrates, Grabbing/pecking for invertebrates, and Other diets.
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig2-figsupp4-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
PCA result of 3D mandible (A, B) and 2D skull shape (C, D) with the diets of extant birds divided into Piscivores, Animal-dominated omnivores, Carnivores, and Other diets.
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig2-figsupp5-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
PCA result of 3D mandible (A, B) and 2D skull shape (C, D) with the diets of extant birds divided into Nectarivores, Omnivores, Plant-dominated omnivores, and Other diets.
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig3-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
Seeds preserved in the abdominal area of selected Jeholornis prima specimens.
(A) IVPP V13274 (holotype). (B) STM 2–41. (C) Close-up image of seeds in IVPP V13274 (A). (D) Gastrolith mass in J. prima STM 2–15. Photos in A–D followed figures in O’Connor et al., 2018. Scale bars equal 5 mm.
© 2018, O'Connor et al. A-D is reprinted from Figures 1-4 from O’Connor et al., 2018, with permission from Elsevier. It is not covered by the CC-BY 4.0 license and further reproduction of this panel would need permission from the copyright holder.
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig4-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)
3D reconstructed seed models preserved in alimentary tract of selected modern birds.
(A) Manucodia comrii (fruit eater). (B) Pedionomus torquatus (seed-grinder). (C) Ectopistes migratorius (seed-grinder). (D) Geospiza fuliginosa (use both seed-cracking and seed-grinding strategies). (E) Conuropsis carolinensis (seed-cracker). Dash-lined boxes indicate local magnifications. Gastroliths are remarkably brighter than other contents in the slices. Red arrows indicate the breakages of seeds in slices, which are difficult to show in the reconstructed models. Scale bars equal 5 mm for the whole models and slices, and 1 mm for the magnification boxes.
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Figure 4—source data 1
Specimens used in the alimentary content analyses.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/74751/elife-74751-fig4-data1-v1.docx
![](https://iiif.elifesciences.org/lax/74751%2Felife-74751-fig4-figsupp1-v1.tif/full/617,/0/default.jpg)