Effect size estimates for the odds of survival with increasing clutch size (raw, standardised and proportional clutch size). The p-values indicate the difference between brood manipulations and observational data, with the individual effect p-values (from zero) in parentheses.

The effects size (log odds of survival) for three different measures of clutch size: (A) raw, (B) standardised, and (C) proportional clutch size. Coloured points are the combined effect sizes of the odds ratios with their 95% confidence intervals. Points are coloured by whether they represent brood manipulation experiments (costs of reproduction) or they are observational (quality). Grey points are the odds ratios of each study, with their sizes weighted by the variance.

The meta-analytic linear regression (Table S1) of the effect of increasing clutch size (per egg) on parental survival, given the average clutch size for the species. Species with small clutch sizes showed stronger costs of reproduction and a stronger relationship with quality (p = 0.015). The points are the survival effect sizes (log odds ratio) per egg (as in Figure 1A) on parental survival in each study, with the point size reflecting the meta-analytic weight of that study.

Isoclines of selection differentials among hypothetical control populations (in which individuals reproduce at the species’ mean ratee) and hypothetical brood-manipulated populations (where individuals reproduce at an increased rate compared to control) for their whole lives. Selection differentials above 1 represents high lifetime fitness. Survival rates, clutch sizes, the magnitude of the manipulation (chicks added) and effect sizes represent the range of these variables present in the studies used in our meta-analysis. For each clutch size, we used a predicted survival rate and effect size to give isoclines that are biologically meaningful (exemplar birds shown in red). Arrows indicate the relative size and direction of selection in life-history space (on the reproduction axis). The costs of reproduction we estimated within species are predicted to result in a fast–slow life-history continuum across species, and the exemplar species we used as examples fit on this diagonal of survival rate/ clutch size combinations. We suggest that individual species show limited costs of reproduction, as they operate within relatively wide constraints imposed by the cost of reproduction that is responsible for the strong life-history trade-off observed across species.