Many insects release chemical signals, known as sex pheromones, to attract mates over long distances. The pheromones of male bumble bees, for example, contain chemicals called fatty alcohols. Each species of bumble bee releases a different blend of these chemicals, and even species that are closely related may produce very different ‘cocktails’ of pheromones.

The enzymes that make fatty alcohols are called fatty acyl reductases (or FARs for short). Any change to a gene that encodes one of these enzymes could change the final mix of pheromones produced. This in turn could have far-reaching effects for the insect, and in particular its mating success. Over time, these changes could even result in new species. Yet no one has previously looked into how the genes for FAR enzymes have evolved in bumble bees, or how these genes might have shaped the evolution of this important group of insects.

Tupec, Buček et al. set out to learn what genetic changes led the males of three common species of bumble bees to make dramatically different mixes of pheromones. Comparing the genetic information of bumble bees with that of other insects showed that the bumble bees and their close relatives, stingless bees, often had extra copies of genes for certain FAR enzymes. Inserting some of these genes into yeast cells caused the yeast to make the correct blend of bumble bee pheromones, confirming that these genes did indeed produce the mixture of chemicals in these signals.

Further, detailed analysis of the bumble bees’ genetic information revealed many genetic sequences, called transposable elements, close to the genes for the FAR enzymes. Transposable elements make the genetic material less stable; they can be ‘cut’ or ‘copied and pasted’ in multiple locations and often cause other genes to be duplicated or lost. Tupec et al. concluded that these transposable elements led to a dramatic increase in the number of genes for FAR enzymes in a common ancestor of bumble bees and stingless bees, ultimately allowing a new pheromone ‘language’ to evolve in these insects.

These results add to our understanding of the chemical and genetic events that influence what chemicals insects use to communicate with each other. Tupec, Buček et al. also hope that a better knowledge of the enzymes that insects use to make pheromones could have wide applications. Other insects – including pest moths – use a similar mixture of fatty alcohols as pheromones. Artificially produced enzymes, such as FAR enzymes, could thus be used to mass-produce pheromones that may control insect pests.

Accumulation of DNA sequencing data is greatly outpacing our ability to experimentally assess the function of the sequenced genes, and most of these genes are expected to never be functionally characterized (Koonin, 2005). Important insights into the evolutionary processes shaping the genomes of individual species or lineages can be gathered from predictions of gene families, gene ortholog groups and gene function. However, direct experimental evidence of the function of gene family members is often unavailable or limited (Lespinet et al., 2002; Demuth et al., 2006; Rispe et al., 2008; Cortesi et al., 2015; Niimura and Nei, 2006). Gene duplication is hypothesized to be among the major genetic mechanisms of evolution (Ohno, 1970; Zhang, 2003). Although the most probable evolutionary fate of duplicated genes is the loss of one copy, the temporary redundancy accelerates gene sequence divergence and can result in gene subfunctionalization or neofunctionalization—acquisition of slightly different or completely novel functions in one copy of the gene (Innan and Kondrashov, 2010; Lynch and Conery, 2000).

The alcohol-forming fatty acyl-CoA reductases (FARs, EC 1.2.1.84) belong to a multigene family that underwent a series of gene duplications and subsequent gene losses, pseudogenizations and possibly functional diversification of some of the maintained copies, following the birth-and-death model of gene family evolution (Eirín-López et al., 2012). FARs exhibit notable trends in gene numbers across organism lineages; there are very few FAR genes in fungi, vertebrates and non-insect invertebrates such as Caenorhabditis elegans, whereas plant and insect genomes typically harbor an extensive number of FAR gene family members (Eirín-López et al., 2012). FARs are critical for production of primary fatty alcohols, which are naturally abundant fatty acid (FA) derivatives with a wide variety of biological roles. Fatty alcohols are precursors of waxes and other lipids that serve as surface-protective or hydrophobic coatings in plants, insects and other animals (Wang et al., 2017; Cheng and Russell, 2004; Jaspers et al., 2014); precursors of energy-storing waxes (Metz et al., 2000; Teerawanichpan and Qiu, 2010a; Teerawanichpan and Qiu, 2012); and components of ether lipids abundant in the cell membranes of cardiac, nervous and immunological tissues (Nagan and Zoeller, 2001).

Additionally, in some insect lineages, FARs were recruited for yet another task—biosynthesis of fatty alcohols that serve as pheromones or pheromone precursors. Moths (Lepidoptera) are the most well-studied model of insect pheromone biosynthesis and have been the subject of substantial research effort related to FARs. Variation in FAR enzymatic specificities is a source of sex pheromone signal diversity among moths in the genus Ostrinia (Lassance et al., 2013) and is also responsible for the distinct pheromone composition in two reproductively isolated races of the European corn borer Ostrinia nubilalis (Lassance et al., 2010). Divergence in pheromone biosynthesis can potentially install or strengthen reproductive barriers, ultimately leading to speciation (Smadja and Butlin, 2009). However, the biological significance of a large number of insect FAR paralogs remains unclear, as all FARs implicated in moth and butterfly sex pheromone biosynthesis are restricted to a single clade, indicating that one FAR group was exclusively recruited for pheromone biosynthesis (Lassance et al., 2010; Liénard et al., 2010; Liénard et al., 2014; Antony et al., 2009). While more than 20 FARs have been experimentally characterized from 23 moth and butterfly (Lepidoptera) species (Tupec et al., 2017), FARs from other insect orders have received far less attention. Single FAR genes have been isolated and experimentally characterized from Drosophila (Diptera) (Jaspers et al., 2014), the European honey bee (Hymenoptera) (Teerawanichpan et al., 2010b) and the scale insect Ericeus pela (Hemiptera) (Hu et al., 2018). Our limited knowledge of FAR function prevents us from drawing inferences about the biological significance of the FAR gene family expansion in insects.

Bumble bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) are a convenient experimental model to study insect FAR evolution because the majority of bumble bee species produces fatty alcohols as species-specific components of male marking pheromones (MMPs) (Ayasse and Jarau, 2014), which are presumed to be biosynthesized by some of the numerous bumble bee FAR gene family members (Buček et al., 2016). Bumble bee males employ MMPs to attract conspecific virgin queens (Goulson, 2010). In addition to fatty alcohols, MMPs generally contain other FA derivatives and terpenoid compounds. MMP fatty alcohols consist predominantly of saturated, mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty alcohols with 16–18 carbon atoms (Ayasse and Jarau, 2014). Pheromone mixtures from three common European bumble bee species, B. terrestris, B. lucorum and B. lapidarius, are representative of the known MMP chemical diversity. Fatty alcohols are the major compounds in MMPs of B. lapidarius (hexadecanol and Z9-hexadecenol) and accompany electroantennogram-active compounds in B. terrestris (hexadecanol, octadecatrienol, octadecenol) and B. lucorum (hexadecanol, Z9,Z12-octadecadienol, Z9,Z12,Z15-octadecatrienol, octadecanol) (Bergström et al., 1973; Kullenberg et al., 1973; Kullenberg et al., 1970; Urbanová et al., 2001; Sobotník et al., 2008; Luxová et al., 2003; Zácek et al., 2009).

In our previous investigation of the molecular basis of pheromone diversity in bumble bees, we found that the substrate specificities of fatty acyl desaturases (FADs), enzymes presumably acting upstream of FARs in pheromone biosynthesis (Tillman et al., 1999), are conserved across species despite differences in the compositions of their unsaturated FA-derived pheromone components (Buček et al., 2013). These findings suggest that the substrate specificity of FADs contributes only partially to the species-specific composition of FA-derived MMPs (Buček et al., 2013). The fatty alcohol content in bumble bee MMPs is therefore presumably co-determined by the enzymatic specificity of other pheromone biosynthetic steps, such as FA biosynthesis/transport or FA reduction. Analysis of the B. terrestris male labial gland (LG) transcriptome uncovered a remarkably high number of putative FAR paralogs, including apparently expressed pseudogenes, strongly indicating dynamic evolution of the FAR gene family and the contribution of FARs to the LG-localized MMP biosynthesis (Buček et al., 2016).

Here, we aimed to determine how the members of the large FAR gene family in the bumble bee lineage contribute to MMP biosynthesis. We sequenced B. lapidarius male LG and fat body (FB) transcriptomes and functionally characterized the FAR enzymes, along with FAR candidates from B. terrestris and B. lucorum, in a yeast expression system. We combined experimental information about FAR enzymatic specificities with quantitative information about bumble bee FAR expression patterns, as well as comprehensive gas chromatography (GC) analysis of MMPs and their FA precursors in the bumble bee male LG, with inference of the hymenopteran FAR gene tree. In addition, we investigated the content of transposable elements (TEs) in the genomic environment of FAR genes in genomes of two bumble bee species, B. terrestris and B. impatiens. We conclude that a dramatic TE-mediated expansion of the FAR gene family started in the common ancestor of the bumble bee (Bombini: Bombus) and stingless bee (Meliponini) lineages, which presumably shaped the pheromone communication in these lineages.

Since the first genome-scale surveys of gene families, gene duplications and lineage-specific gene family expansions have been considered major mechanisms of diversification and adaptation in eukaryotes (Lespinet et al., 2002) and prokaryotes (Jordan et al., 2001). Tracing the evolution of gene families and correlating them with the evolution of phenotypic traits has been facilitated by the growing number of next-generation genomes and transcriptomes from organisms spanning the entire tree of life. However, obtaining experimental evidence of the function of numerous gene family members across multiple species or lineages is laborious. Thus, such data are scarce, and researchers have mostly relied on computational inference of gene function (Radivojac et al., 2013). Here, we aimed to combine computational inference with experimental characterization of gene function to understand the evolution of the FAR family, for which we predicted a substantial gene number expansion in our initial transcriptome analysis of the buff-tailed bumble bee B. terrestris (Buček et al., 2016). We specifically sought to determine whether the FARs that emerged through expansion of the FAR gene family substantially contribute to MMP biosynthesis in bumble bees.

We found that the FAR-A group underwent massive expansion in all analyzed species of bumble bee and stingless bee lineages but not in any other Hymenoptera species, with the exceptions of the ant Camponotus floridanus and the mining bee Andrena vaga (Figure 1, Figure 2). The phylogenetic sister group relationship of bumble bees and stingless bees (Peters et al., 2017; Branstetter et al., 2017) indicates that the FAR duplication process occurred or started in their ancestor, while the increased number of predicted FAR-A genes in A. vaga and C. floridanus suggests that the FAR-A genes independently underwent duplication in other hymenopteran lineages. According to estimated lineage divergence times, FAR duplication events in bumble bees and stingless bees started after their divergence from Apis 54 million years ago (40–69 million years 95% confidence interval) (Peters et al., 2017). The number of inferred FAR-A orthologs is inflated by predicted pseudogenes—FARs with fragmented coding sequences that lack some of the catalytically essential domains and motifs (Figure 1—figure supplement 2). These predicted catalytically inactive yet highly expressed FAR-A pseudogenes might play a role in regulating the FAR-catalyzed reduction (Pils and Schultz, 2004). The number of predicted FAR-A pseudogenes indicate that the FAR-A ortholog group expansion in this lineage was a highly dynamic process (Figure 1, Figure 1—figure supplement 2). The high number of species-specific FAR-A duplications or losses between the closely related species B. lucorum and B. terrestris, which diverged approximately 5 million years ago (Hines, 2008), further indicates the dynamic evolutionary processes acting on the FAR genes. Notably, gene family expansion inference based on mixed transcriptome and genome data is limited by (1) the uncertainty of distinguishing genuine genes from alternative splice variants and non-overlapping transcript fragments and (2) potential errors in genome assemblies or annotations. The pattern of lineage-specific FAR-A gene expansion in stingless bees and bumble bees is, to the best of our knowledge, corroborated by all genomic and transcriptomic datasets currently available for this group. Confirming many of the other potential lineage-specific FAR gene expansions in Hymenoptera will, however, require analysis of additional genomic resources.

Strikingly, both stingless bees and bumble bees share a life strategy of scent marking using LG secretion (Jarau et al., 2004). In worker stingless bees, LG secretion is used as a trail pheromone to recruit nestmates to food resources and generally contains fatty alcohols such as hexanol, octanol, and decanol in the form of their fatty acyl esters (Jarau et al., 2006; Jarau et al., 2010). The correlation between FAR-A ortholog group expansion and use of LG-produced fatty alcohols as marking pheromones or their precursors suggests a critical role for FAR-A gene group expansion in the evolution of scent marking. In the future, identification and characterization of FAR candidates involved in production of stingless bee worker LG-secretion could corroborate this hypothesis.

Bumble bee orthologs (FAR-G) of B. mori pheromone-biosynthetic FAR (Moto et al., 2003) are not abundantly or specifically expressed in male bumble bee LGs, as evidenced by RNA-Seq RPKM values (Figure 1—figure supplement 1). MMP-biosynthetic FARs in bumble bees and female sex pheromone-biosynthetic FARs in moths (Lepidoptera) were therefore most likely recruited independently for the tasks of pheromone biosynthesis.

Various models have attempted to describe the evolutionary mechanisms leading to the emergence and maintenance of gene duplicates (Innan and Kondrashov, 2010). The fragmented state of the B. terrestris genome and its limited synteny with the A. mellifera genome restricts our ability to reconstruct the genetic events accompanying the FAR duplications resulting in the FAR-A ortholog group expansion. Notably, the MMP quantities in bumble bees are substantially higher than quantities of pheromones in other insects of comparable size. For example, B. terrestris, B. lucorum and B. lapidarius bumble bee males can produce several milligrams of MMPs (Kindl, personal communication, Figure 5), while the sphingid moth Manduca sexta produces tens of nanograms of sex pheromone (Tumlinson et al., 1989). Taking into consideration the large quantities of MMPs in bumble bee males, we speculate that gene dosage benefits could substantially contribute to the duplications and duplicate fixation of MMP-biosynthetic FARs. Under this model, sexual selection favoring bumble bee males capable of producing large quantities of MMPs could fix the duplicated FARs in a population (Lespinet et al., 2002; Innan and Kondrashov, 2010).

Mechanistically, gene duplications can be facilitated by associated TEs (Reams and Roth, 2015; Schrader and Schmitz, 2018). The content of repetitive DNA in the B. terrestris and B. impatiens genome assemblies is 14.8% and 17.9%, respectively (Sadd et al., 2015), which is lower than in other insects such as the beetle Tribolium castaneum (30%), Drosophila (more than 20%) or the parasitoid wasp Nasonia vitripenis (more than 30%), but substantially higher than in the honey bee Apis mellifera (9.5%) (Elsik et al., 2014; Weinstock and Honeybee Genome Sequencing Consortium, 2006). Our finding that TEs are enriched in the vicinity of FAR-A genes in the B. terrestris and B. impatiens genomes indicates that TEs presumably contributed to the massive expansion of the FAR-A ortholog group (Figure 3). Expansions of another pheromone biosynthetic gene family, FADs, in the fly Drosophila and in corn borer moths (Ostrinia) also have been found to be mediated by TEs. It was proposed that up to seven FAD loci in these species originated by repeated retrotransposition or DNA-mediated transposition (Fang et al., 2009; Xue et al., 2007).

One notable feature of FAR-A expansion in bumble bees and stingless bees is the extent of gene expansion, often generating 10 or more predicted FAR genes (Figure 2). One scenario for FAR-A expansion is that TEs provided substrates for non-homologous recombination that led to the initial duplication (Reams and Roth, 2015; Bourque, 2009). Redundant copies of the ancestral FAR-A gene that arose as a result of the duplication were not under strong purifying selection and might have tolerated accumulation of TEs in their vicinity. The higher abundance of TEs subsequently made the region vulnerable to structural rearrangements, which facilitated expansion of the FAR-A genes. Janoušek et al. presented a model in which TEs facilitate gene family expansions in mammalian genomes (Janoušek et al., 2013; Janoušek et al., 2016). Their model describes gradual accumulation of TEs along with expansions of gene families, which under some model parameters can lead to a runaway process characterized by rapid and accelerating gene family expansion (Janoušek et al., 2016). In bumble bees, this runaway process could have been facilitated by fixation of duplicated FAR-A genes due to sexual selection for increased FAR expression. However, alternative scenarios are possible. For example, initial duplication of the FAR-A ancestral gene might have been unrelated to TEs, and TEs may have accumulated after the initial duplication. Alternatively, translocation of the FAR-A ancestral copy to a TE-rich region in the common ancestor of bumble bees and stingless bees might have facilitated expansion of this ortholog group. Further research is needed to confirm which of these scenarios is most likely.

The spectrum of fatty alcohols in B. terrestris and B. lucorum male LG differs substantially from that of B. lapidarius. In both B. terrestris and B. lucorum, the male LG extract contains a rich blend of C14–C26 fatty alcohols with zero to three double bonds (Figure 5). In B. lapidarius, the male LG extract is less diverse and dominated by Z9-16:OH and 16:OH (Figure 5, Figure 5—source data 1). To uncover how the distinct repertoire of FAR orthologs contributes to the biosynthesis of species-specific MMPs, we functionally characterized LG-expressed FARs. We previously found that the transcript levels of biosynthetic genes generally reflect the biosynthetic pathways most active in bumble bee LG (Buček et al., 2016; Buček et al., 2013). For further experimental characterization, we therefore selected the FAR-A and FAR-J gene candidates, which exhibited high and preferential expression in male LG (Figure 1—figure supplement 1). Notably, the abundant expression of BlapFAR-A1 and BterFAR-J in both virgin queen and male LG (Figure 4—figure supplement 1) suggests that these FARs might also have been recruited for production of queen-specific signals (Amsalem et al., 2014). We found that the highly similar BlucFAR-A1/BterFAR-A1 and BlapFAR-A1 orthologs exhibit distinct substrate preferences for longer fatty acyl chains (C18–C26) and shorter monounsaturated fatty acyl chains (Z9-16: and Z9-18:), respectively. This substrate preference correlates with the abundance of Z9-16:OH in B. lapidarius MMP and the almost complete absence of Z9-16:OH in B. lucorum and B. terrestris (Figure 5—source data 1). BlapFAR-A4 and to some extent BlapFAR-A5 likely further contribute to the biosynthesis of Z9-16:OH in B. lapidarius. The ability of BlucFAR-A1 and BterFAR-A1 (and not of BlapFAR-A1) to reduce long monounsaturated fatty acyls (Z15-20:) also correlates with the absence of detectable amounts of Z15-20:OH in B. lapidarius MMP.

Our comprehensive GC analysis of bumble bee male LGs, however, indicates that the composition of LG fatty acyls is another factor that contributes substantially to the final MMP composition. For example, the very low quantities of Z9-16:OH in B. terrestris and B. lucorum and of Z15-20:OH in B. lapidarius (Figure 5) can be ascribed to the absence of a FAR with the corresponding substrate specificity, but the availability of potential substrates, that is very low amount of Z9-16: acyl in B. lucorum and B. terrestris male LG and the absence of detectable Z15-20: acyl in B. lapidarius LG also likely contribute.

We detected several fatty alcohols in FBs of B. terrestris and B. lucorum, 16:OH, Z9,Z12-18:OH and Z9,Z12,Z15-18:OH being the most abundant (Figure 5—source data 1, Figure 5—figure supplement 1). Fatty alcohols are not expected to be transported from FB across haemolymph to LG (Buček et al., 2016). However, the presence of Z9,Z12-18: and Z9,Z12,Z15-18: fatty alcohols in FB provides an explanation for why we did not find a FAR reducing Z9,Z12-18: and Z9,Z12,Z15-18: among the functionally characterized candidates from B. terrestris and B. lucorum. Our candidate selection criteria were based on the LG-specific FAR transcript abundance, and we might have disregarded a FAR that is capable of polyunsaturated fatty acyl reduction and is expressed at comparable levels in both LG and FB.

We noted several discrepancies between the FAR specificity in the yeast expression system and the apparent FAR specificity in vivo (i.e. the apparent specificity of fatty acyl reduction in bumble bee LG calculated from the fatty acyl and fatty alcohol content, Figure 5—figure supplement 1). We found that BlapFAR-A1 is capable of producing substantial amounts of Z9-16:OH and Z9-18:OH (Figure 6—figure supplement 8A) in the yeast system, while in B. lapidarius LG, only Z9-16: acyl is converted to Z9-16:OH, as evidenced by the absence of detectable amounts of Z9-18:OH (Figure 5). Additionally, BlapFAR-A1 and BlapFAR-A4 produce in the yeast expression system polyunsaturated fatty alcohols (Figure 6) that are not present in B. lapidarius male LG, despite the presence of corresponding fatty acyls in the LG (Figure 5). A possible explanation for the differences between FAR specificities in the bumble bee LG and the yeast expression system is that the pool of LG fatty acyls that we assessed and used to evaluate the apparent FAR specificities has a different composition than the LG pool of fatty acyl-CoAs, which are the form of fatty acyls accepted by FARs as substrates. The presumably low concentrations of Z9,Z12-18:CoA, Z9,Z12,Z15-18:CoA, and Z9-18:CoA in the LG of male B. lapidarius compared to the concentrations of the respective fatty acyls could prevent detectable accumulation of the corresponding fatty alcohols. We therefore propose that the selectivity of enzymes and binding proteins that convert fatty acyls to fatty acyl-CoAs (Oba et al., 2004) and protect fatty acyl-CoAs from hydrolysis (Matsumoto et al., 2001) represents an additional mechanism shaping the species-specific fatty alcohol composition in bumble bee male LGs.

In sum, the functional characterization of bumble bee FARs indicates that the combined action of FARs from the expanded FAR-A ortholog group has the capability to biosynthesize the majority of bumble bee MMP fatty alcohols. The substrate specificity of FARs apparently contributes to the species-specific MMP composition, but other biosynthetic steps, namely the process of fatty acyl and fatty acyl-CoA accumulation, likely also contribute to the final fatty alcohol composition of bumble bee MMPs.

Complete short read (Illumina HiSeq2500) data from B. lucorum and B. lapidarius were deposited in the Sequence Read Archive (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sra) with BioSample accession numbers SAMN08625119, SAMN08625120, SAMN08625121, and SAMN08625122 under BioProject ID PRJNA436452.

1. 1. Tupec M
   2. Buček A

   (2018) BioProject

   ID PRJNA436452. Complete short read (Illumina HiSeq2500) data from B. lucorum and B. lapidarius.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/PRJNA436452

1. 1. Peters RS
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   16. Polidori C
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   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA252240
2. 1. Sadd BM
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   3. Bloch G
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   26. Amdam GV
   27. Beckers M
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   29. Biewer M
   30. Bitondi MM
   31. Blaxter ML
   32. Bourke AF
   33. Brown MJ
   34. Buechel SD
   35. Cameron R
   36. Cappelle K
   37. Carolan JC
   38. Christiaens O
   39. Ciborowski KL
   40. Clarke DF
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   42. Collins DH
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   49. Evans J
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   (2015) BioProject

   ID PRJNA45869. Bombus terrestris genome.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA45869
3. 1. Honeybee Genome Sequencing Consortium

   (2006) BioProject

   ID PRJNA13343. Apis mellifera genome.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA13343
4. 1. Honeybee Genome Sequencing Consortium

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   ID PRJNA274144. Camponotus floridanus genome.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA274144
5. 1. Nygaard S
   2. Zhang G
   3. Schiøtt M
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   6. Hu H
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   ID PRJNA271903. Acromyrmex echinatior genome.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA271903
6. 1. Werren JH
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   3. Desjardins CA
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   6. Colbourne JK; Nasonia Genome Working Group
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   8. Colbourne JK

   (2011) BioProject

   ID PRJNA20073. Nasonia vitripennis genome.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA20073
7. 1. Patalano S
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   3. Wyatt C
   4. Ewels P
   5. Camara F
   6. Ferreira PG
   7. Asher CL
   8. Jurkowski TP
   9. Segonds-Pichon A
   10. Bachman M
   11. González-Navarrete I
   12. Minoche AE
   13. Krueger F
   14. Lowy E
   15. Marcet-Houben M
   16. Rodriguez-Ales JL
   17. Nascimento FS
   18. Balasubramanian S
   19. Gabaldon T
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   21. Andrews S
   22. Himmelbauer H
   23. Hughes WO
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   ID PRJNA301748. Polistes canadensis genome.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA301748
8. 1. Woodard SH
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   ID PRJNA62691. Melipona quadrifasciatatranscriptome.

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9. 1. Peters RS
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   3. Mayer C
   4. Donath A
   5. Gunkel S
   6. Meusemann K
   7. Kozlov A
   8. Podsiadlowski L
   9. Petersen M
   10. Lanfear R
   11. Diez PA
   12. Heraty J
   13. Kjer KM
   14. Klopfstein S
   15. Meier R
   16. Polidori C
   17. Schmitt T
   18. Liu S
   19. Zhou X
   20. Wappler T
   21. Rust J
   22. Misof B
   23. Niehuis O

   (2017) BioProject

   ID PRJNA252285. Bombus rupestris transcriptomes.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA252285
10. 1. Sadd BM
    2. Barribeau SM
    3. Bloch G
    4. de Graaf DC
    5. Dearden P
    6. Elsik CG
    7. Gadau J
    8. Grimmelikhuijzen CJ
    9. Hasselmann M
    10. Lozier JD
    11. Robertson HM
    12. Smagghe G
    13. Stolle E
    14. Van Vaerenbergh M
    15. Waterhouse RM
    16. Bornberg-Bauer E
    17. Klasberg S
    18. Bennett AK
    19. Câmara F
    20. Guigó R
    21. Hoff K
    22. Mariotti M
    23. Munoz-Torres M
    24. Murphy T
    25. Santesmasses D
    26. Amdam GV
    27. Beckers M
    28. Beye M
    29. Biewer M
    30. Bitondi MM
    31. Blaxter ML
    32. Bourke AF
    33. Brown MJ
    34. Buechel SD
    35. Cameron R
    36. Cappelle K
    37. Carolan JC
    38. Christiaens O
    39. Ciborowski KL
    40. Clarke DF

    (2015) BioProject

    ID PRJNA61101. Bombus impatiens genome.

    https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/?term=PRJNA61101
11. 1. Bonasio R
    2. Zhang G
    3. Ye C
    4. Mutti NS
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Author details

1. Michal Tupec

   1. Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
   2. Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

   Contribution

   Validation, Investigation, Visualization, Writing—original draft

   Contributed equally with

   Aleš Buček

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0003-2371-4850

2. Aleš Buček

   1. Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
   2. Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan

   Contribution

   Conceptualization, Validation, Investigation, Visualization, Methodology, Writing—original draft

   Contributed equally with

   Michal Tupec

   For correspondence

   ales.bucek@oist.jp

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

3. Václav Janoušek

   Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic

   Contribution

   Validation, Investigation, Methodology, Writing—original draft

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-6894-6826

4. Heiko Vogel

   Department of Entomology, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Validation, Investigation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0001-9821-7731

5. Darina Prchalová

   Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic

   Contribution

   Investigation, Methodology

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

6. Jiří Kindl

   Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic

   Contribution

   Investigation, Methodology

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

7. Tereza Pavlíčková

   Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

8. Petra Wenzelová

   Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic

   Contribution

   Formal analysis, Supervision, Investigation, Writing—original draft

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

9. Ullrich Jahn

   Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic

   Contribution

   Data curation, Supervision, Validation, Methodology, Writing—original draft

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

10. Irena Valterová

    Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic

    Contribution

    Conceptualization, Data curation, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Validation, Methodology, Writing—original draft

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

11. Iva Pichová

    Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic

    Contribution

    Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Validation, Methodology, Writing—original draft

    For correspondence

    iva.pichova@uochb.cas.cz

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

    "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-2178-9819

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