Each of the eight listed methodologies is illustrated in detail in a figure supplement.
The crossings were performed with five families (numbered grey circles). Females (red plants, leaf pointing to left) were fertilised with pollen from males (blue plants, leaf pointing to right) from …
Our study involved 320 plant individuals from two origins (Europe, North America) × 8 populations × 5 maternal families × 2 sexes (male, female) × 2 breeding treatments (outbred, inbred).
(a) Spatial flower trait assessment. (A) Maximal synflorescence height above ground, (B) flower number, (C) petal limb area, (D) corolla expansion. (b) Variation in flower shape of Silene latifolia …
Flowers were inserted into VOC collection units (consisting of 50 mL PE cups with lids, both with 15 mm holes), which were fixed via wooden sticks at the plant pot exterior. Two polydimethylsiloxane …
The camera was fixed on a tripod positioned on an exact horizontal platform, which was oriented towards the setting sun (a) to take images of flowers in the visible light spectrum (b) and the …
Nectar was extracted into 1 or 2 µL microcapillary tubes. The length of the nectar column was measured with a calliper to determine the exact volume. Nectar sugar content was analysed with a …
The plots consisted of eight individuals representing all eight populations within one of the eight possible breeding treatment × sex × range combinations. Each of these combinations was replicated …
Graphs show estimated marginal means and standard errors for outbred (Ou, filled bars) and inbred (In, open bars), female (Fe, red bars) and male (Ma, blue bars) plants from Europe (Eu, dark …
Please note that the amount of variation in response variables that is explained by fixed effects exceeds the amount of variance explained by the population random factor in 9 of 12 models.
Patterns were compared for outbred (Ou, filled squared) and inbred (In, open squares), female (Fe, red) and male (Ma, blue) plants from Europe (Eu, dark coloured) and North America (Na, bright …
Graphs show estimated marginal means and standard errors for outbred (Ou, filled bars) and inbred (In, open bars), female (Fe, red bars) and male (Ma, blue bars) plants from Europe (Eu, dark …
Estimates were extracted for significant interaction effects from the zero inflation part of generalised linear mixed effects models (significance levels based on Wald χ² tests denoted at top of …
Trait category | Location | Acquisition time (year, month, duration) | Nesting and intended total sample size | Realised total sample size | Replicates per group (breeding treatment × sex × origin combination) | Reason for sample size reduction |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spatial flower traits (synflorescence height, flower number) | Greenhouse and common garden | 2019 Jun., Jul., Aug. 5 days, respectively | Two breeding treatments × 2 sexes × 5 maternal families × 8 populations × 2 origins=320 | 316 | 36–40 | Four individuals died |
Flower scent | Greenhouse | 2019 Jul. 8 hr | Two breeding treatments × 2 sexes × 3 maternal families × 8 populations × 2 origins=192 | 192 | 23–35 | - |
Flower colour | Common garden | 2019 Aug. 2 weeks | Two breeding treatments × 2 sexes × 5 maternal families × 8 populations × 2 origins=320 | 286 | 23–25 | Four individuals died, no flowers available for remaining plants |
Spatial flower traits (petal limb area and expansion) | Common garden | 2019 Aug. 2 weeks | Two breeding treatments × 2 sexes × 5 maternal families × 8 populations × 2 origins=320 | 286 | 23–35 | Four individuals died, no flowers available for remaining plants |
Pollinator visitation rates | Field site | 2020 May–Jul. 8 weeks | Two breeding treatments × 2 sexes × 5 maternal families × 8 populations × 2 origins=320 | 316 | 36–40 | Four individuals died |
Floral rewards | Common garden | 2020 Aug. 4 weeks | Two breeding treatments × 2 sexes × 5 maternal families × 8 populations × 2 origins=320 | 280 | 30–40 | Four individuals died, no flowers available for remaining plants |
The table summarises the model types and error distributions used for each of the responses (printed in subscript), the parameter estimates on the link function scale with significance levels …
Intercept | Btmt [outbred –inbred] | Sex [female –male] | Origin [Europe –US] | Btmt × sex | Btmt × origin | Sex × origin | Btmt × sex × origin | Latitude | Plant age | Obs. time | Pop | Pop: mother | Pop : father | Plot | Obs. trial | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Spatial flower traits | ||||||||||||||||
Synflorescence heightLMM(G) | 81.03 | 3.56*** | −0.40NS | 1.84 | 0.67 | 0.11 | 1.07Ns | −0.15 | 1.00 | Nt. | Nt. | 5.42 | 16.76 | 0.00 | Nt. | Nt. |
No. flowersGLMM(NBQ) | 2.61 | 0.14*** | −0.70*** | −0.25** | 0.08** | −0.04 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.12 | Nt. | Nt. | 0.03 | 0.02 | 0.02 | Nt. | Nt. |
Petal limb areaLMM(G) | 2.76 | 0.16** | −0.38*** | 0.07 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.19 | Nt. | Nt. | 0.15 | 0.08 | 0.00 | Nt. | Nt. |
Corolla expansionLMM(G) | 5.21 | 0.21** | −0.44*** | 0.33 | 0.23** | 0.02 | 0.21** | 0.11 | 0.06 | Nt. | Nt. | 0.29 | 0.30 | 0.00 | Nt. | Nt. |
Flower scent traits | ||||||||||||||||
Shannon index VOCLMM(G) | 1.86 | 0.03 | −0.13* | −0.06 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.03 | −0.02* | Nt. | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | Nt. | Nt. |
Lilac aldehyde AZI-GLMM(NBQ) | 15.11 | 0.02 | −0.06 | 0.02 | 0.01 | −0.08 | −0.04 | −0.16* | 0.01 | −0.08 | Nt. | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.00 | Nt. | Nt. |
−1.93*** | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | |
Lilac aldehyde B/CZI-GLMM(NBL) | 15.78 | −0.08 | −0.09 | 0.12 | 0.06 | −0.10 | −0.01 | −0.03 | −0.09 | −0.03 | Nt. | 0.01 | 0.00 | 0.03 | Nt. | Nt. |
−1.93*** | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | |
Lilac aldehyde DZI-GLMM(NBQ) | 13.70 | −0.05 | 0.14 | −0.07 | −0.09 | −0.16 | −0.06 | −0.08 | 0.08 | −0.17 | Nt. | 0.00 | 2.75 | 0.47 | Nt. | Nt. |
0.02Ns | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | |
Flower colour | ||||||||||||||||
Reflectance UVLMM(G) | 2.04 | −0.05 | −0.27*** | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.08Ns | −0.04 | 0.02 | 0.01 | Nt. | Nt. | 0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | Nt. | Nt. |
Reflectance blueLMM(G) | 26.72 | −0.02 | −0.95*** | 0.10 | 0.24 | 0.05 | 0.21 | 0.14Ns | 0.47 | Nt. | Nt. | 0.47 | 0.85 | 0.00 | Nt. | Nt. |
Reflectance greenLMM(G) | 39.87 | −0.10 | −0.19 | 0.40 | 0.26 | 0.17 | 0.12 | 0.31Ns | 0.05 | Nt. | Nt. | 1.12 | 0.37 | 0.07 | Nt. | Nt. |
Floral rewards | ||||||||||||||||
Excreted sugarLMM(G) | 5.70 | 0.03 | −0.18*** | −0.08 | 0.04 | −0.02 | −0.02 | 0.04 | 0.04 | Nt. | Nt. | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.00 | Nt. | Nt. |
Pollinator visitation | ||||||||||||||||
No. plant visitsZI-GLMM(P) | 0.28 | 0.09 | −0.67*** | 0.09 | 0.22 | −0.20 | −0.16 | −0.29* | Nt. | Nt. | −0.11* | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | 0.27 | 0.15 |
−0.48Ns | 0.05 | 0.29 | −0.21 | −0.11 | −0.11 | 0.10 | −0.46* | Nt. | Nt. | 0.10 | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | 0.14 | 0.44 | |
No. flowers visitedZI-GLMM(P) | 0.79 | 0.04 | −0.56*** | −0.03 | 0.34* | −0.23 | −0.22 | −0.46** | Nt. | Nt. | 0.19*** | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | 0.68 | 0.23 |
−0.09Ns | −0.04 | 0.47** | −0.23 | −0.19 | −0.02 | 0.17 | −0.31* | Nt. | Nt. | 0.47** | Nt. | Nt. | Nt. | 0.16 | 0.47 |
Abbreviations. Btmt: breeding treatment, LMM: linear mixed effects model, (NBQ): negative binomial distribution with quadratic parametrisation and log-link, (NBL): negative binomial distribution with linear parametrisation and log-link, No.: number, Nt.: not tested, GLMM: generalised linear mixed effects model, Obs: observation, (P): Poisson distribution with log-link, Pop: population, ZI-GLMM: zero inflation generalised mixed effects model, (G): Gaussian distribution with identity link.
Mean ± SE abundance (e-06) of 70 volatile organic compounds (VOC) emitted by Silene latifolia plants in all breeding treatment × sex × origin combinations, as determined by silicone tubing headspace collection combined with thermal desorption–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry.
The 20 VOC, which evidently trigger antennal responses in Hadena bicruris (Dötterl et al., 2006) and were thus analysed as a sub-dataset, are highlighted in bold.