Unprecedented yet gradual nature of first millennium CE intercontinental crop plant dispersal revealed in ancient Negev desert refuse
- McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Archaeology, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
- Archaeobotany Lab, Martin (Szusz) Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archaeology, Bar-Ilan University, Israel
- Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Ancient Environments, Institute of Archaeology & The Steinhardt Museum of Natural History, Tel Aviv University, Israel
- Southern Region, Israel Antiquities Authority, Omer Industrial Park, Israel
- Central Region, Israel Antiquities Authority, HiPort, Israel
- School of Archaeology and Maritime Cultures, University of Haifa, Israel
Figures
Figure 1
Study sites and middens. The study sites—Shivta, Elusa, and Nessana—roughly span the Negev Highlands region of the Negev desert.
The excavated middens are marked on the aerial photos above and are lettered as named in the 2015–2017 excavations (see also Table 4). Adjacent middens include K1-K2 at Shivta and A1-A4 at Elusa; the latter are marked above only as A.
Figure 2
First finds from the Negev Highlands middens.
Section photos of Nessana midden A (left) and Shivta midden E (right) are shown with select loci (photographed by Yotam Tepper) and their uncalibrated radiocarbon dates, from which remains of white lupine (center top), jujube (center middle), and aubergine (center bottom) were found. These plant remains represent some of the earliest of their species found in the Southern Levant (photographed by Daniel Fuks).
Figure 3 with 1 supplement
Select plant remains from the Negev Highland middens (a) charred almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch) exocarp; (b) charred pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) drupe; (c) charred carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) pod fragment; (d) uncharred stone pine (Pinus pinea L.) outer seed coat fragment; (e) uncharred walnut (Juglans regia L.) endocarp fragment (f) charred peach (Prunus persica [L.] Batsch) endocarp; (g) charred cherry/plum (Prunus subgen. Cerasus/Prunus) endocarp; (h) uncharred aubergine (Solanum melongena L.) seed; (i) charred jujube (Ziziphus jujuba/mauritiana) endocarp; (j) charred Nile acacia (Vachellia nilotica [L.] P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb.) seed; (k) charred fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum/berythea) seed; (l) charred white lupine (Lupinus albus L.) seed; (m) charred broad bean (Vicia faba L.).
Scale bars = 5 mm for both a-f and g-m; all photos in grayscale (photographed by: Daniel Fuks and Yoel Melamed). Additional photos of select plant remains appear in Figure 3—figure supplement 1.
Figure 3—figure supplement 1
Supplementary photos of select plant remains from the Negev Highland middens.
(a) Left: Solanum melongena L. seed from Shivta (E 504-5029). Right: cf. Solanum melongena from Nessana (A 102-1072-1). (b) Prunus subgen. Cerasus/Prunus endocarp from Shivta (K1 165-1652). (c) Vachellia nilotica (L.) Wild. ex Delile seed faces A and B from Elusa (A1/10a). (d) Lupinus albus L. seed faces A and B from Nessana (A101-1040/2). (e) Ziziphus jujuba/mauritiana endocarp from Shivta (E501-5108). (f) Lathyrus clymenum L. seed from Shivta (K2-158-1618).
Figure 4
Schematic representation of domesticated food plants according to their frequency in the first millennium CE Negev Highland sites and period of initial domestication in, or introduction to, the Southern Levant: (a) barley, (b) free-threshing tetraploid wheat, (c) free-threshing hexaploid wheat, (d) grape, (e) lentil, (f) bitter vetch, (g) fig, (h) date, (i) olive, (j) pomegranate, (k) fenugreek, (l) peach, (m) almond, (n) carob, (o) Spanish vetchling, (p) stone pine, (q) broad bean, (r) walnut, (s) plum/cherry, (t) pistachio, (u) hazel, (v) white lupine, (w) jujube, (x) aubergine.
Figure 5
Schematic representation of directions of first millennium CE crop diffusion into the Southern Levant based on plants attested to in the Negev Highland middens.
Roman Agricultural Diffusion (RAD) crops are labeled red; Islamic Green Revolution (IGR) crops are labeled purple. Placements on map convey general directions of diffusion, not necessarily precise origins.
Videos
Video 1
Micro-CT longitudinal scans of Z. jujuba/mauritiana endocarp.
Video 2
Micro-CT lateral scans of Z. jujuba/mauritiana endocarp.
Tables
Table 1
Proposed Islamic Green Revolution (IGR) crops (according to Watson, 1983).
| Category | Latin name | English common name |
|---|---|---|
| cereal | Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. | sorghum |
| Oryza sativa L. | rice | |
| Triticum durum Desf. | hard wheat | |
| tree fruit | Citrus aurantium L. | sour orange |
| Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck | lemon | |
| Citrus aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle | lime | |
| Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merr. | shaddock | |
| Musa paradisiaca L. | banana/plantain | |
| Cocos nucifera L. | coconut | |
| Mangifera indica L. | mango | |
| vegetable | Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai | watermelon |
| Spinacia oleracea L. | spinach | |
| Cynara cardunculus L. | artichoke | |
| Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott | taro | |
| Solanum melongena L. | eggplant | |
| condiment | Saccharum officinarum L. | sugar cane |
| textile | Gossypium arboreum/herbaceum L. | Old World cotton |
Table 2
Proposed Roman Agricultural Diffusion (RAD) crops in the Eastern Mediterranean*.
| Category | Latin name | English common name |
|---|---|---|
| cereal | Oryza sativa L. | rice |
| Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. | sorghum | |
| legume | Lupinus albus L. | white lupine |
| tree fruit/nut | Ceratonia siliqua L. | carob |
| Morus nigra L. | black mulberry | |
| Prunus persica (L.) Batsch | peach | |
| Pyrus communis L. | pear | |
| Prunus domestica L. | plum | |
| Prunus armeniaca L. | apricot | |
| Prunus avium/cerasus L. | cherry | |
| Pistacia vera L. | pistachio nut | |
| Pinus pinea L. | stone pine | |
| Corylus sp. | hazel | |
| Ziziphus jujuba/mauritiana | jujube | |
| Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck | lemon | |
| Cocos nucifera L. | coconut | |
| vegetable | Cucumis melo convar. melo | muskmelon |
| textile | Cannabis sativa L. | hemp |
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*
Includes species first attested in the 1st c. BCE Hellenistic-Roman transition. Although carob is a native Mediterranean tree, improved food cultivars are first attested in this period. Similarly, stone pine is first attested during this period in the S Levant, although native to the NE Mediterranean.
Table 3
Pre-1st millennium CE introductions/domestications in the Southern Levant*.
| Period | Category | Latin name | English common name |
|---|---|---|---|
| Neolithic | cereal | Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare | barley |
| Triticum monococcum subsp. monococcum | einkorn wheat | ||
| T. turgidum subsp. dicoccum (Schrank ex Schübl.) Thell. | emmer wheat | ||
| T. aestivum/durum s.l. | free-threshing wheats | ||
| legume | Lens culinaris Medik. syn. Vicia lens (L.) Coss. & Germ. | lentil | |
| Pisum sativum L. syn. Lathyrus oleraceus Lam. | pea | ||
| Cicer arietinum L. | chickpea | ||
| Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd. | bitter vetch | ||
| Vicia faba L. | broad bean | ||
| fiber/oil | Linum usitatissimum L. | flax | |
| Chalcolithic | tree fruit/nut | Olea europaea L. | olive |
| Vitis vinifera L. | grapevine | ||
| Ficus carica L. | fig | ||
| Ficus sycomorus L. | sycomore fig | ||
| Phoenix dactylifera L. | date | ||
| Punica granatum L. | pomegranate | ||
| Prunus amygdalus Batsch | almond | ||
| Bronze-Iron Age | cereal | Panicum miliaceum L. | broomcorn millet |
| legume | Lathyrus clymenum L. | Spanish vetchling | |
| Lathyrus sativus/cicera L. | grass/red pea | ||
| Trigonella foenum-graecum L. | fenugreek | ||
| tree fruit/nut | Juglans regia L. | walnut | |
| Citrus medica L. | citron | ||
| vegetable | Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai | watermelon | |
| condiment/oil | Papaver somniferum L. | opium poppy | |
| Nigella sativa L. | black cumin | ||
| Sesamum indicum L. | sesame |
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*
Based primarily on Zohary et al., 2012, this list includes only species whose evidence for domestication/introduction is clear. This and the preceding tables are not intended to be exhaustive lists but rather to provide a basis against which the Negev Highlands crop plant assemblage can be compared.
Table 4
Domesticated plant seeds in order of magnitude by period, site, and area (from fine-sift).
| Century CE | 1st–3rd | 4th–mid-5th | mid-5th–mid-6th | mid-5th–mid-7th | mid-6th–mid-7th | early 7th | 7th–8th | mid-7th–8th | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Site | SVT | HLZ | HLZ | SVT | NZN | NZN | SVT | SVT | NZN | NZN | SVT | ||||
| Area (midden) | P | A4 | A1 | M | A | A | O | K2 | E | A | E | K1 | K2 | E | |
| Samples | 5 | 14 | 19 | 14 | 7 | 5 | 12 | 3 | 3 | 27 | 10 | 13 | 13 | 12 | |
| Vol. (L) | 15 | 85 | 85 | 42 | 21 | 15 | 36 | 9 | 9 | 84 | 33 | 39 | 39 | 36 | |
| Plant species | Common name | ||||||||||||||
| Hordeum vulgare | Barley | XX | XXX | XXX | XX | XXX | XX | XX | XXX | XXX | XXX | XXX | XXX | XXX | XXX |
| Triticum spp. | Wheat | XX | XX | XX | XX | X | X | X | XX | XX | XX | XXX | XXX | XXX | XXX |
| Lens culinaris | Lentil | XX | XX | X | XX | X | X | X | X | XX | XX | X | X | ||
| Vicia ervilia | Bitter vetch | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | XX | X | XX | XX | X | XX |
| Trigonella foenum-graecum | Fenugreek | X | X | X | X | X | X | ||||||||
| Lathyrus clymenum | Spanish vetchling | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Lupinus albus | White lupine | X | |||||||||||||
| Vitis vinifera | Grape | X | XX | XX | XX | XX | X | XX | XX | X | XXX | XXX | XXX | XXX | XX |
| Ficus carica | Fig | X | XXX | XXX | XX | X | X | XX | X | X | XX | X | X | XX | |
| Olea europaea | Olive | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | XX | X | X | X | |||
| Phoenix dactylifera | Date | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | XX | XX | X | X | |
| Punica granatum | Pomegranate | rind | rind | X | rind | X | rind | X | XX | X | X | X | |||
| Ceratonia siliqua | Carob | X | X | pistil | |||||||||||
| Prunus amygdalus | Almond | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Prunus persica | Peach | X | X | X | X | ||||||||||
| Pinus pinea | Stone pine | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Solanum melongena | Aubergine | X | X | ||||||||||||
| Vachellia nilotica* | Nile acacia | X | X | X | |||||||||||
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SVT-Shivta; HLZ-Elusa; NZN-Nessana; for midden locations see Figure 1. Orders of magnitude presented as 1≤X<10≤XX<100≤XXX<1000. See Materials and Methods for sampling strategy. This table is based on source data in Table 4—source data 1, Table 4—source data 2 and Table 4—source data 3.
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*
Although not necessarily a domesticate, we take this Egyptian wild plant to have been cultivated or imported into the Negev Highlands, as explained in the text.
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Table 4—source data 1
Elusa carpological remains.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-table4-data1-v2.xlsx
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Table 4—source data 2
Shivta carpological remains.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-table4-data2-v2.xlsx
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Table 4—source data 3
Nessana carpological remains.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-table4-data3-v2.xlsx
Additional files
-
MDAR checklist
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-mdarchecklist1-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 1
Carpological plant remains from Negev Highland middens.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp1-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 2
Presence/absence of domesticated species in Negev Highland middens by period (carpological remains).
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp2-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 3
Identified wood and charcoal taxa from Shivta, Nessana, and Elusa.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp3-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 4
Identified pollen from Shivta reservoirs and garden.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp4-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 5
Combined evidence for fruit/nut trees.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp5-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 6
Radiocarbon dating of select loci.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp6-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 7
Earliest archaeobotanical evidence in the S Levant for domestication/introduction of Negev Highland domesticated plants.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp7-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 8
Some Acacia spp. seed measurements from the Israel National Collection of Plant Seeds and Fruits.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp8-v2.docx
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Supplementary file 9
Select L. clymenum seed measurements from Tel Nami.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/85118/elife-85118-supp9-v2.docx
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Unprecedented yet gradual nature of first millennium CE intercontinental crop plant dispersal revealed in ancient Negev desert refuse
eLife 12:e85118.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.85118
