Evidence for deliberate burial of the dead by Homo naledi
- The National Geographic Society, United States
- Centre for the Exploration of the Deep Human Journey, School of Anatomical Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
- The Carnegie Institution for Science, United States
- Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, South Africa
- Geography, Archaeology and Environmental Studies, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
- Department of Palaeobiology, Swedish Museum of Natural History, Sweden
- Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Campus Gotland, Sweden
- Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, University Drive, Canada
- The American University, United States
- Department of Anthropology, Princeton University, United States
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, France
- School of GeoSciences, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
- Frontiers Media Limited, United Kingdom
- Rosenstiel School of Marine, Atmospheric, and Earth Science, United States
- Department of Geography and Anthropology, Louisiana State University, United States
- Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa
- Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, United States
- Primate Evolutionary Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, United States
- Department of Anthropology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, United States
- Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, United States
- Center for Academic Research & Training in Anthropogeny, University of California, San Diego, United States
- Synthetaic, United States
- ICON & Warnell School of Forestry, University of Georgia, United States
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Cardiff University, United Kingdom
- Human Evolution Research Institute, University of Cape Town, South Africa
- Department of Anthropology, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, United States
- Department of Anthropology, Appalachian State University, United States
- Department of Archaeology, University of York; The King's Manor, United Kingdom
Figures
Figure 1
Rising Star cave system map.
The relative locations of current entrances and underground fossil localities are indicated, including the Dinaledi Subsystem and Lesedi Chamber. The inset is an expanded map showing the Dinaledi Subsystem with the Hill Antechamber, Dinaledi Chamber, and associated fissure passages including the U.W. 110 locality.
Figure 2
Dinaledi Subsystem map and detail showing floor space of the Dinaledi Chamber and Hill Antechamber.
The floor visualization is derived from LIDAR and photogrammetric survey. Differences in color in this visualization reflect the lighting used in different parts of the subsystem during data capture and do not accurately depict contrasts in sediment color. Excavation units are indicated.
Figure 3
Dinaledi Subsystem plan view and cross-sectional view.
In the plan view (bottom), floor elevation acquired from FARO scanning is indicated with the color ramp. The location of the cross section is indicated with the red line running from the Hill Antechamber via one of the interconnecting passages into the Dinaledi Chamber. The cross-section, indicated with a red line, includes both the Hill Antechamber Feature and Puzzle Box excavation areas. The cross-section view (top) indicates the relative elevation of these areas and the intervening floor surfaces.
Figure 4
Excavation plan in the Hill Antechamber.
The location of the three excavation units described in this study is shown, with the skeletal and dental material of the Hill Antechamber Feature in place. The other two excavation areas each produced little skeletal material, with only unidentifiable fragments in N100W50 and 10 teeth with few long bone fragments in S150W150, discussed in text.
Figure 5
Hill Antechamber Feature.
(A) Photogrammetric model of the feature during the course of excavation with surface partially exposed. North arrow in this image depicts grid north, which is offset by 20 degrees from magnetic north. (B) Plan view of skeletal material identified from CT segmentation. (C) Transect of photogrammetric model showing the floor surface of the profile flanking the feature excavation unit. A model of the segmented skeletal material within the feature is superimposed on the floor profile in the same orientation to illustrate the position of remains relative to the floor surface. (D) Skeletal material segmented within the feature as viewed from the west of the excavation. The material occupies volume across a substantial thickness of sediment.
Figure 6
Hill Antechamber Feature associated elements.
Groups associated by spatial position, articulation, or clustering of contiguous anatomical elements.
Figure 7
Dental elements identified within the Hill Antechamber Feature, viewed from below in their relative positions in the feature.
Identification of elements from the CT data is uncertain in a number of cases, represented here by ‘?’. These provisional attributions are provided to evaluate the minimum number of individuals and likely individuation of elements.
Figure 8
Stratigraphic situation of the Hill Antechamber Feature.
At left, a photogrammetric visualization of this excavation area shows the locations of four cross-sections labeled A, B, C, and D, which are pictured at right. These are arranged from north to south across the designated feature, with the final one being the excavation profile exposed as sediments to the south were cleared during the pillaring of the feature. All sections are shown at the same scale. (A) Section 20 cm from south end of feature. Four digits of the articulated foot are visible at lower left of this section. A concave rubbly layer along the bottom of the excavated unit slopes upward at both sides of the section, while an area of large clasts occupies the center of the section above and to the right of the foot. (B) Section approximately 10 cm from south end. Tarsals of the articulated foot at center-left. Here, the rubbly layer is a concave region below the tarsals and bone cross-sections at far left. (C) Section approximately 5 cm from south end of feature, at same approximate scale. The bottom half of this section is dominated by the same rubbly clast-rich area. Cross-sections of tibia and fibula are visible at center-left of section. (D) Sediment profile at immediate south end of feature. Orange layers are rich in LORM content, with many visible clasts, and these alternate with darker-colored layers. The layering is roughly parallel with the east-west slope of the chamber floor in this profile, somewhat increasing in slope in layers below 10 cm. This pattern to the outside of any skeletal remains is not parallel to the situation where skeletal remains are present, despite being only a few centimeters from the section shown in panel C, and an additional 5 cm from the section shown in panel B.
Figure 9
Vertical separation and angulation of articulated and semi-articulated material in the Hill Antechamber Feature.
Top: Plan view of articulated hand (next to stone), articulated foot with lower limb elements, and disarticulated hand and foot elements. Bottom: View of same elements from the west. The angle of the floor in a north-south profile is indicated, which contrasts with the angulation of the articulated foot, the disarticulated hand and foot elements, and the orientation of the stone.
Figure 10
Microtomographic sections within the Hill Antechamber Feature.
(A) Cross-section through the U.W. 101–2074 jacketed mass. The excavation surface is top; the right side of this section was in contact with the larger U.W. 101–2076 mass prior to excavation. In (A) small, partially fragmented bone elements are visible at the top of the section, embedded within a sediment mass with low radiodensity (darker on this image). Below these bones and low radiodensity sediment is higher radiodensity sediment characteristic of the Hill Antechamber Feature as a whole. The highest radiodensity (lightest in color) objects in the section are LORM clasts, with a distribution characteristic of the feature as a whole. Square shows the region illustrated in panel B. (B) Detail of section shown in panel A showing sediment interface below bones, with invertebrate burrows visible. (C) Section near that shown in panel A, with similar features but gradient of sediment radiodensity. The interface shown in these panels is interpreted as invertebrate activity and diffusion or percolation of material associated with decomposition of soft tissue or diagenesis of bone. (D) Section of U.W. 101–2074 with the same orientation as in panels A and C, but without bone evident. Texture and composition are typical of Unit 3 sediment throughout the subsystem. (E) Section of U.W. 101–2074 with an isolated right talus visible at right. No sediment contrast or halo is evident near this bone, which was likely isolated at the time of burial in this position. (F) Section of U.W. 101–2075, with orientation as in other panels but different scale. The top of this section includes tibia and fibula shafts. As in panel D, the Unit 3 sediment here underlying skeletal material shows no evident layering and chaotic orientation of LORM clasts.
Figure 11
Excavation plan in the Dinaledi Chamber.
The location of the three excavation areas described in this study is shown, together with a plan view of the skeletal material in the Puzzle Box area and the Dinaledi Feature 1 area.
Figure 12
Dinaledi Feature 1.
(A) Photogrammetric model of excavated unit including Dinaledi Feature 1 and part of Dinaledi Feature 2. These data derive from a time before the cutting of the profile on the south edge of the feature as shown in Figure 15. (B) Schematic showing excavated area, neighboring areas, and skeletal material. All skeletal remains are shown, including those identifiable within the unexcavated feature and those excavated from above the current level. While there is additional material visible within the unexcavated portion of the feature, the boundaries and remaining depth of such material are not yet known. (C) Positions of excavated elements as viewed from east excavation face. Elements remaining in the feature are not included in this view.
Figure 13
Skeletal element localization in the Dinaledi Feature 1.
Figure 14
Skeletal part representation in Dinaledi Feature 1.
Excavated fragments are shown in dark gray, in addition to the portions of mandible that are unambiguously identifiable within the site. Other material, both within the deposit and within the excavated collection, is identifiable to region but not necessarily to element. For example, a partial cranial vault is in place, many ribs are represented, some partial phalanges and fragments of metacarpals, and some vertebral fragments. These are not indicated in the diagram; none of them duplicate any identified element. Excavated elements are listed in the Appendix. At least two postcranial elements attributable to a juvenile individual are represented; these are indicated at right. Recording forms after Roksandic, 2002.
Figure 15
Sedimentology and stratigraphy of unlithified mud clast breccia and laminated orange-red mud clasts surrounding Feature 1.
(A) North-facing overview of Feature 1 showing the relation of the sediments around the fossils and height of profile. (B) Profile view. Feature 1 occurs within unlithified mud clast breccia (UMCB) rich in orange-red clasts. A continuous laminated orange-red mud layer beneath the unexcavated floor surface dips near the feature, where it becomes fragmented and muddled. (C) Photomicrograph of sediment beneath the burial feature showing the in situ poorly sorted fabric of the unlithified mud clast breccia. (D) Close-up photomicrograph of a laminated orange-red mud clast. The clast contains up to 30% sand and has mm-scale laminations. (E) Close-up photomicrograph of laminated orange-red mud clasts coated and impregnated with secondary Mn- and Fe-oxyhydroxides in brown-gray silt and clay matrix of the unlithified mud clast breccia. Note that (D) and (E) have been intentionally rotated 90° right from their in situ position in (C) for easier viewing of microstratigraphy of LORM.
Figure 16
Comparative analysis of sediment particle size distributions and sorting characteristics.
(A) Particle size distribution curves for sediment around Feature 1, showing volume percentage as a function of the mean grain size. (B) Violin plots representing the mean grain size in μm for each sample group. (C) Violin plots illustrating the sorting of sediments in each sample group. In violin plots, internal box plots show the interquartile range and white dots denote the median sorting value.
Figure 17
Harker variation plots showing the relationship between CaO content (wt.%) and other major oxides (wt.%) and loss on ignition (LOI, wt.%) for the five sediment groups analyzed within and around Feature 1.
The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) for each sediment group is provided, indicating the strength and direction of the linear relationship between CaO content and the respective major oxide or LOI.
Figure 18
Harker variation plots illustrating the relationship between CaO and selected trace elements for the five sediment groups analyzed within and around Feature 1.
Figure 19
Harker variation plots illustrating the relationship between Zn and selected trace elements for the five sediment groups analyzed within and around Feature 1.
SB plots distinctly apart from other sediment groups, which tend to overlap or are mingled for most trace elements.
Figure 20
Principal component analysis (PCA) of the geochemistry of the five sediment groups analyzed within and around Feature 1.
FS2280 is a sample of unlithified mud clast breccia (UMCB) from the Puzzle Box excavation area. (A) Scatter plot of PCA showing the distribution of major oxides and loss on ignition (LOI) over the first two principal components (PC1 and PC2). (B) Scatter plot of PCA showing the distribution of trace elements and rare earth elements (REEs) over PC1 and PC2. (C) Biplot of PCA loadings for major oxides, selected trace elements and REEs, LOI and mean grain size.
Figure 21
Matrix-supported elements within Dinaledi Feature 1.
(A) Photogrammetric model of unexcavated elements. (B) Detail showing ribs including those matrix-supported in subvertical orientation.
Figure 22
Skeletal material from the Puzzle Box area in position.
Elements included in these views are greater than 2 cm in their maximum dimension; isolated teeth and smaller fragments are not included. The rectangular box at left represents the location of a partial infant skeleton, discussed in text. Top: plan view. Bottom: View from east side of excavation area.
Figure 23
Spatial data on element positions within Puzzle Box area.
(A) Photo taken during excavation. (B) The combination of white-light surface scans and high-resolution laser scans representing the same excavation stage as photo in A. (C) Elevation data for elements and surrounding context. (D) Three-dimensional coordinates of identified elements in plane with X and Z dimensions. (E) Three-dimensional coordinates of identified elements in plane with Y and Z coordinates. Scale in mm.
Figure 24
PLACEHOLDER Spatial orientation and clustering of elements from the Puzzle Box area.
(A) Spatial locations of elements excavated from the Puzzle Box area in 2013 and 2014 in oblique 2.5D view. For larger specimens mapped with two end points (n=79), we calculate (B) their plunge angle and (C) planar orientation frequencies (16). (D) 3D density-based cluster analysis of fossil material collected on the surface of the Dinaledi Chamber together with excavated remains. A single high-density cluster comprises the majority of excavated fossils (green) with two smaller peripheral clusters (purple, gold) and outliers (red points).
Figure 25
Spatial positions of elements attributed to the DH7 skeleton.
Most recognized elements are localized within the western part of the Puzzle Box area, particularly ischium and lower limb elements, with a mandibular fragment and humerus fragments all within 10 cm. The more distant elements are hand bones.
Figure 26
Spatial positions of elements attributed to the DH1, DH2, DH3, and DH4 crania within the Puzzle Box area.
An outline of the DH2 vault outcropped upon the surface at the time of excavation, and the portions preserved from the feature were enclosed in sediment. This partial skull was underlain by the left half of the DH3 cranium, with the left hemimandible in contact with it and with other fragments located within 20 cm at a similar depth. Fragments of the DH4 cranium were recovered at greater depth, localized toward the east side of the area, with pieces of the left frontal approximately 15 cm from a concentration with most other fragments. The DH1 cranium is the most complete but was highly fragmented at the time of discovery, with many refitting parts displaced across 35 cm and a range of depths, including the occipital and temporal fragments in the deepest part of the deposit.
Figure 27
Postcranial elements for which conjoining fragments are spatially displaced from each other in the Puzzle Box area.
The processes leading to displacement of these fragments did not result in significant loss of detail of fracture surfaces, enabling direct refitting to match them. The processes causing movement of these fragments after fracturing were capable of changing depth, compass bearing, and plunge angle of fragments, including those not supported by contact with other underlying fragments. However, those processes did not move any of these fragments more than 15 cm apart.
Figure 28
Context of DH1 fragments with U.W.101–1475 femur.
The DH1 occipital and parietal bones are fragmented into pieces that vary from ~1 cm to >6 cm in diameter. (A) Diagram showing all DH1 fragments with U.W. 101–1475 from south direction. U.W. 101–1475 is a proximal femur emplaced vertically in the deposit, with its distal end in contact with multiple fragments of DH1 occipital and parietal bones. (B) Photograph at time of excavation of the deepest DH1 fragments showing contact and relative positioning of these fragments with U.W. 101–1475.
Figure 29
Postcranial shaft fragments in the vicinity of DH1 cranial fragments and articulated Foot 1.
The range of plunge angles of these fragments could not have been maintained without sediment support at the time they attained these positions.
Figure 30
In situ sampling localities around Feature 1 on the Dinaledi Chamber floor.
(a) Top view of the Dinaledi floor showing the exposed Feature 1 and the group A (SA) samples from areas outside any feature, group B (SB) samples from inside Feature 1, and group C (SC) samples between Features 1 and 2. (b) Vertical wall where profile group E (SE) samples were collected.
Appendix 6—figure 1
Geological face map and cross-sections through the sediments at different locations in the Dinaledi Chamber, illustrating the relationships between the flowstone groups and sedimentary units.
Figure modified from Dirks et al., 2017; Figure 2 to remove hypothesized subsurface floor drain, discussed in text.
Appendix 6—figure 2
Data and characteristics of cave floor sediments (Facies 2) from the Dinaledi and Dragon’s Back Chambers.
Figure taken from Dirks et al., 2015; Figure 5 - https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.09561.007. Original figure legend: (A) Grain size distribution of sample UW101-SO-39 (Figure 2C). The bulk of the sample material falls within a size fraction corresponding to silt and fine-grained sand. Some coarser mudstone fragments did not disintegrate when immersed in water, likely due to considerable Mn- and Fe-oxide micro-concretionary development in the orange mudstone. Because some mudstone fragments are well lithified, the particle size distribution is skewed towards the coarser grain-size values. (B) Results of XRF analyses of bulk samples of three floor sediments from the Dinaledi Chamber (UW101-SO31, –34 and –39) and one from the Dragon’s Back chamber (DB-1). The sample from the Dragon’s Back Chamber has a radically different composition from those of the Dinaledi Chamber, with the high SiO2 content reflecting its dominance of quartz. The Dinaledi samples have much higher Al2O3 and K2O contents than DB-1, indicating a higher content of clay minerals and mica, and higher CaO, MgO, MnO, and total Fe oxide contents which reflect alterations and inclusions. The higher P2O5 content of the Dinaledi samples is probably located in comminuted bone fragments which are seen macroscopically. The volatiles content (LOI) of the Dinaledi samples is also higher than in DB-1, in accord with a higher total clay mineral and mica content. (C–E) Backscattered electron (BSE) wide-field images of grain mounts from floor sediments. Brighter shades indicate the presence of heavier elements, mainly Mn and Fe in altered grains. (C) DB-1, Dragon’s Back Chamber, large fragments are quartz and chert, partly altered. (D) UW101-SO34. (E) UW101-SO39. In these samples, the large fragments are almost exclusively clay; note their angular shape, which shows these to be locally derived.
Appendix 6—figure 3
Stratigraphic units and flowstones observed in the Dinaledi Chamber, showing Unit 1 sediment lamination and laminated orange-red mud clasts.
Figure taken from Dirks et al., 2015; Figure 4 - https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.09561.006. Original figure legend: (A) Erosional remnant of horizontally laminated Unit 1 strata (Facies 1). (B) Close-up view of Unit 1 (Facies 1 a) showing fine laminations and small invertebrate burrows (note fine sand infilling in burrows). (C) Overview photo of the Dinaledi Chamber, directly to the east of the entrance point into the chamber. Photo shows distribution of Flowstones 1–3 and stratigraphic Units 2 and 3. (D) Close-up view of Flowstone 1 encasing sediment of Unit 2. Note that several generations of flowstone (Flowstones 1 a–e) are coating Unit 2. The thin, clear lower layer is Flowstone 1 a, and the overlying white flowstone is either Flowstone 2 or 3. (E) Close-up view of Unit 2, consisting of generally poorly-cemented Facies 2 sediment. (F) View of the chamber floor near the entry point. On the cave floor, a large erosional remnant of Unit 1 (orange laminated mudstone of Facies 1 a) is surrounded by mud-clast breccia of Unit 3 (main hominin bearing unit). Note that Flowstone 2 has been undercut by post-depositional erosion of Unit 3, which, in this location, has resulted in a lowering of the floor by as much as 25 cm. (G) Flowstone 2 overlying Unit 3 in one of the chamber’s side passages. In this location, Unit 3 has also been partly eroded after deposition from underneath the flowstone drape, leaving a hanging remnant, with some indurated sediment of Unit 3 attached to its base. Note the continued deposition of sediment above Flowstone 2.
Appendix 6—figure 4
Hill Antechamber excavation unit S150W150 prior to opening excavation.
This area had a collection of non-overlapping flat stones on the surface.
Appendix 6—figure 5
Top surface of the Hill Antechamber Feature after full exposure.
Photo (left) and 3D model based on photogrammetry (right). The bone material at the northmost extent of the feature is powdery and highly fragmented, with more complete skeletal elements visible toward the south.
Appendix 6—figure 6
Hill Antechamber Feature after pedestaling and separation from surrounding sediment.
Appendix 6—figure 7
Sagittal (north-south) section of Hill Antechamber Feature.
North is at the left of the frame. This section is at approximately 55% of the east-west breadth of the feature. The articulated foot is visible in longitudinal section at right of frame, with cross-sections of other bones and teeth further to the left of frame. The layer that constitutes the top of the feature is packed with bone material including articulated, semi-articulated, and loose material, flattened into less than 5 cm thickness.
Appendix 6—figure 8
Hill Antechamber Feature after jacketing of largest block (U.W.101–2076) in six layers of plaster bandages, prior to separation from sediment at its base.
Appendix 6—figure 9
Fossil mass within plaster jacket after packing into waterproof caving bag for exit from the cave system.
Appendix 6—figure 10
Detail of medical-resolution CT image of Hill Antechamber feature.
This is a horizontal section with north at the bottom of the frame and west at the right of the frame. In this image, the bright object at lower left is a cross section of HAA1. At its left, cross sections of four rays of the articulated hand are visible; there is also a bone visible in the gap or space adjacent to the artifact that is a fragment of intermediate phalanx.
Appendix 6—figure 11
Sediment profile showing east wall of N100W50 excavation unit in Hill Antechamber.
The sediment is a dark brown unlithified breccia containing laminated orange-red mud (LORM) clasts. In this unit, the clasts make up a small fraction of the sedimentary deposit with little evidence of layering or stratigraphic differentiation.
Appendix 6—figure 12
Hill Antechamber excavation east wall profile.
North is at left of frame. The ellipse is drawn around a 15 cm by 10 cm by 5 cm collapse of the wall that accompanied removal of the plaster-jacketed block, resulting in some distortion to the profile in this localized area. The darker patch at the right side of the ellipse is a shadow from the collapse edge, not a dark-colored inclusion in the sediment. Layering of the unlithified mud clast breccia is visible, with some layers having a higher content of LORM clasts and laminae, with color variation less evident here than in the section shown in Figures 11 and 13 The layering is approximately parallel to the slope of the chamber floor. LORM content and clasts are less toward the north edge of the excavation, at left of frame.
Appendix 6—figure 13
Stratigraphic profile of sediments directly adjacent to the south boundary of the Hill Antechamber Feature.
At the left of the image is the west side of the unit. This profile represents the sedimentary structure of the S50W100 and S50W50 units before the excavation reduced the feature to its rounded south edge. Horizontal layering of unlithified mud clast breccia (UMCB) with denser orange-red LORM-clast bearing laminae is evident for the top 10 cm of the profile. This layering becomes subhorizontal with horizontal depth with an east-west trending slope. The lowest layer visible trends into the horizontal floor of the excavation unit. This layering is not paralleled by the skeletal material, fill, or LORM clasts visible within the feature itself.
Appendix 6—figure 14
CT section of Hill Antechamber Feature.
This east-west transverse section is at approximately 50% of north-south length of the feature. At the bottom of the section, many small LORM clasts are visible, with two notable voids taking the form of vertical cracks. The disordered array of LORM clasts continues to the right of the image with frequent voids (west side of feature).
Appendix 6—figure 15
CT section of Hill Antechamber feature.
This is a transverse section on the east-west plane at approximately 65% of the north-south length. The five rays of the articulated foot are visible at lower left of the section. This section cuts across the metatarsals. The bones of the foot are immediately surrounded by a halo of sediment that approximates the shape of the foot’s soft tissue. This lower-density sediment separates the bones of the foot from surrounding, more radio-opaque LORM clasts and sediment. Above the foot, some small voids in the sediment are visible; small voids are also visible toward the left of this section directly above a disordered arrangement of LORM clasts.
Appendix 6—figure 16
Bright orange LORM patch immediately beneath Hill Antechamber feature.
(A) Bottom of Hill Antechamber feature after jacketed extraction and inversion. The bright orange patch is visible centrally slightly toward the right (west) side of the inverted feature (B) Excavation unit immediately after jacketed extraction of feature and cleaning of surface. The corresponding orange patch is visible at the center of the unit.
Appendix 6—figure 17
Grain size distribution curves of the five sediment groups analyzed within and around Feature 1.
Appendix 6—figure 18
Harker variation plots illustrating the relationship between CaO and selected rare earth elements (REEs) for the five sediment groups analyzed within and around Feature 1.
Appendix 6—figure 19
Harker variation plots illustrating the relationship between Zn and selected rare earth elements (REEs) for the five sediment groups analyzed within and around Feature 1.
SB plots distinctly apart from other sediment groups, which tend to overlap or are mingled for most trace elements.
Appendix 6—figure 20
Reconstruction of the burial position of Dinaledi Hand 1 and Foot 1.
Hand 1 (blue) is nearly complete and shows the flexed (curled) nature of the fingers upon recovery. Foot 1 (purple) is less well preserved, but demonstrates the retention of the structures of the mid and hind foot. F1 is underlain by disarticulated manual elements not associated with Hand 1.
Appendix 6—figure 21
Hill Antechamber Artifact 1 (HAA1) showing surface from 8 different angles with 2 different lighting directions.
The 3D model results from the segmentation of the synchrotron scan at 16.22 um, the artifact being still in situ in the paster jacket.
Appendix 6—figure 22
Hill Antechamber Artifact 1 (HAA1) close-up from the previous figure with detail showing striations visible on both faces and intersection of these striations with sharp edge of artifact showing appearance of serrations.
Videos
Video 1
Augmented virtual reality of the hill antechamber and the dinaledi chamber.
Video 2
HAA1 visualization movie.
Video 3
Hill Antechamber Block movie.
Tables
Appendix 6—table 1
Particle-size distribution (PSD) of sediments based on the Folk and Ward Method.
| Sample name | Folk and Ward Method (µm) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean grain size | Sorting | Skewness | Kurtosis | |
| DF1 | 372.21 | 2.60 | –0.07 | 0.78 |
| DF2 | 279.24 | 3.22 | –0.07 | 0.85 |
| DF3 | 442.02 | 2.28 | –0.06 | 0.75 |
| DF4 | 373.84 | 2.90 | –0.23 | 0.91 |
| DF5 | 356.86 | 2.61 | –0.03 | 0.76 |
| DF6 | 444.55 | 2.28 | –0.08 | 0.75 |
| DF7 | 375.33 | 2.54 | –0.05 | 0.77 |
| DF8 | 433.52 | 2.29 | –0.05 | 0.74 |
| DF9 | 379.40 | 2.49 | –0.03 | 0.74 |
| DF10 | 443.43 | 2.27 | –0.06 | 0.74 |
| DF11 | 351.16 | 2.81 | –0.12 | 0.83 |
| DF12 | 336.17 | 2.68 | –0.02 | 0.74 |
| DF13 | 369.75 | 2.51 | –0.02 | 0.73 |
| DF14 | 416.46 | 2.34 | –0.04 | 0.73 |
| DF15 | 334.22 | 2.79 | –0.05 | 0.80 |
| DF16 | 306.38 | 2.89 | –0.02 | 0.77 |
| DF17 | 362.50 | 2.55 | –0.02 | 0.74 |
| DF18 | 369.84 | 2.52 | –0.02 | 0.73 |
| DF19 | 533.93 | 2.31 | –0.28 | 1.01 |
| DF20 | 385.75 | 2.46 | –0.03 | 0.74 |
| DF21 | 261.64 | 3.29 | –0.05 | 0.82 |
| DF22 | 305.33 | 2.87 | –0.01 | 0.75 |
| DF23 | 270.15 | 3.34 | –0.08 | 0.86 |
| DF24 | 302.06 | 2.90 | –0.02 | 0.76 |
| DF25 | 340.90 | 2.82 | –0.08 | 0.84 |
| DF26 | 331.13 | 2.97 | –0.14 | 0.84 |
| DF27 | 208.47 | 3.89 | –0.07 | 0.84 |
| DF28 | 288.48 | 3.21 | –0.09 | 0.85 |
| DF29 | 317.93 | 2.87 | –0.05 | 0.80 |
| DF30 | 442.62 | 2.28 | –0.07 | 0.75 |
| DF31 | 268.14 | 3.32 | –0.07 | 0.85 |
| DF32 | 222.71 | 3.69 | –0.06 | 0.83 |
| DF33 | 337.60 | 2.71 | –0.03 | 0.76 |
| DF34 | 442.46 | 2.63 | –0.28 | 0.94 |
| SA1 | 323.81 | 2.84 | –0.05 | 0.80 |
| SA2 | 468.58 | 2.42 | –0.21 | 0.92 |
| SA3 | 277.86 | 3.27 | –0.09 | 0.85 |
| SA4 | 370.36 | 2.64 | –0.08 | 0.81 |
| SA5 | 345.26 | 2.66 | –0.03 | 0.76 |
| SA6 | 332.60 | 2.72 | –0.02 | 0.75 |
| SA7 | 308.77 | 2.84 | –0.01 | 0.75 |
| SA8 | 354.38 | 2.95 | –0.16 | 0.91 |
| SB1 | 237.81 | 3.51 | –0.05 | 0.82 |
| SB2 | 360.13 | 2.58 | –0.03 | 0.75 |
| SB3 | 358.12 | 2.67 | –0.06 | 0.80 |
| SC1 | 362.99 | 2.58 | –0.03 | 0.75 |
| SC2 | 328.85 | 2.81 | –0.05 | 0.80 |
| SC3 | 383.76 | 2.48 | –0.04 | 0.75 |
| SC4 | 332.60 | 2.70 | –0.02 | 0.75 |
| SE1 | 329.15 | 2.71 | –0.01 | 0.74 |
| SE2 | 265.82 | 3.36 | –0.09 | 0.84 |
| SE3 | 460.70 | 2.21 | –0.06 | 0.73 |
| SE4 | 385.72 | 2.48 | –0.04 | 0.75 |
| SE5 | 278.21 | 3.25 | –0.08 | 0.84 |
Appendix 6—table 2
Bulk major oxide chemistry and loss on ignition (LOI) obtained from x-ray fluorescence (XRF) in weight percentage (wt.%).
| Sample name | Sample locality | Al2O3 | CaO | Fe2O3 | K2O | MgO | MnO | P2O5 | SiO2 | TiO2 | LOI | SUM |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| DF1 | DF group: Sediments from above Features 1 and 2 collected during excavation and opening of features. | 16.39 | 1.55 | 10.69 | 1.72 | 2.79 | 4.41 | 0.27 | 52.67 | 0.75 | 9.1 | 100.34 |
| DF2 | 16.97 | 1.18 | 10.15 | 1.75 | 2.42 | 3.66 | 0.19 | 54.23 | 0.814 | 8.51 | 99.87 | |
| DF3 | 15.65 | 1.22 | 10.49 | 1.61 | 2.66 | 4.25 | 0.37 | 54.69 | 0.754 | 8.33 | 100.03 | |
| DF4 | 16.09 | 1.17 | 10.33 | 1.68 | 2.67 | 4.32 | 0.27 | 53.11 | 0.758 | 8.66 | 99.05 | |
| DF5 | 16.23 | 1.21 | 10.51 | 1.68 | 2.51 | 4.30 | 0.29 | 53.89 | 0.746 | 8.55 | 99.91 | |
| DF6 | 16.02 | 1.21 | 10.46 | 1.67 | 2.59 | 4.29 | 0.25 | 54.10 | 0.765 | 8.61 | 99.96 | |
| DF7 | 16.47 | 1.58 | 10.09 | 1.71 | 2.73 | 3.98 | 0.27 | 53.34 | 0.773 | 9.1 | 100.04 | |
| DF8 | 14.38 | 6.90 | 8.95 | 1.52 | 3.08 | 3.45 | 0.57 | 48.09 | 0.686 | 12.31 | 99.93 | |
| DF9 | 15.63 | 1.04 | 10.42 | 1.62 | 2.51 | 4.51 | 0.34 | 54.90 | 0.734 | 8.14 | 99.85 | |
| DF10 | 16.09 | 1.17 | 10.66 | 1.67 | 2.56 | 4.53 | 0.35 | 53.33 | 0.743 | 8.9 | 100.00 | |
| DF11 | 17.45 | 0.86 | 10.38 | 1.80 | 2.13 | 3.70 | 0.18 | 53.75 | 0.812 | 8.74 | 99.80 | |
| DF12 | 16.91 | 1.30 | 10.42 | 1.74 | 2.20 | 4.09 | 0.48 | 52.89 | 0.782 | 9.03 | 99.84 | |
| DF13 | 15.82 | 0.92 | 10.70 | 1.68 | 2.31 | 4.52 | 0.27 | 55.15 | 0.751 | 8.04 | 100.16 | |
| DF14 | 16.45 | 0.76 | 10.08 | 1.68 | 2.08 | 3.70 | 0.21 | 56.30 | 0.778 | 7.84 | 99.88 | |
| DF15 | 15.15 | 1.00 | 10.79 | 1.70 | 2.61 | 5.28 | 0.23 | 53.78 | 0.712 | 8.44 | 99.69 | |
| DF16 | 16.09 | 0.88 | 10.69 | 1.71 | 2.39 | 4.60 | 0.23 | 53.82 | 0.764 | 8.33 | 99.49 | |
| DF17 | 15.35 | 0.88 | 10.36 | 1.60 | 2.33 | 4.35 | 0.25 | 56.10 | 0.731 | 7.93 | 99.89 | |
| DF18 | 15.48 | 0.95 | 10.46 | 1.61 | 2.27 | 4.41 | 0.27 | 55.39 | 0.727 | 8.29 | 99.86 | |
| DF19 | 16.73 | 0.80 | 10.07 | 1.71 | 2.25 | 3.62 | 0.16 | 55.60 | 0.805 | 8.25 | 100.00 | |
| DF20 | 17.30 | 0.97 | 10.13 | 1.72 | 2.22 | 3.49 | 0.20 | 54.30 | 0.804 | 8.69 | 99.82 | |
| DF21 | 14.57 | 0.89 | 9.55 | 1.49 | 2.00 | 3.59 | 0.33 | 59.28 | 0.72 | 7.62 | 100.03 | |
| DF22 | 14.85 | 0.89 | 10.22 | 1.54 | 2.07 | 4.13 | 0.32 | 57.61 | 0.723 | 7.86 | 100.21 | |
| DF23 | 14.13 | 0.96 | 9.78 | 1.42 | 2.32 | 3.86 | 0.34 | 58.71 | 0.702 | 7.65 | 99.86 | |
| DF24 | 14.69 | 1.00 | 9.50 | 1.42 | 2.33 | 3.45 | 0.39 | 58.44 | 0.719 | 7.6 | 99.53 | |
| DF25 | 15.02 | 0.91 | 9.51 | 1.44 | 2.36 | 3.50 | 0.29 | 58.57 | 0.743 | 7.67 | 100.01 | |
| DF26 | 14.78 | 1.08 | 9.28 | 1.43 | 2.32 | 3.20 | 0.40 | 58.76 | 0.757 | 7.61 | 99.62 | |
| DF27 | 15.18 | 0.98 | 9.54 | 1.52 | 2.12 | 3.74 | 0.36 | 57.51 | 0.763 | 7.73 | 99.43 | |
| DF28 | 13.71 | 1.01 | 9.31 | 1.35 | 2.18 | 3.78 | 0.31 | 60.38 | 0.702 | 7.27 | 99.99 | |
| DF29 | 14.80 | 1.55 | 9.96 | 1.52 | 2.22 | 4.60 | 0.75 | 55.51 | 0.701 | 8.05 | 99.66 | |
| DF30 | 14.26 | 1.18 | 9.64 | 1.47 | 2.02 | 4.02 | 0.51 | 58.44 | 0.707 | 7.5 | 99.74 | |
| DF31 | 16.19 | 0.88 | 10.10 | 1.69 | 1.95 | 3.88 | 0.30 | 56.21 | 0.781 | 7.96 | 99.94 | |
| DF32 | 14.88 | 1.36 | 9.80 | 1.53 | 1.94 | 3.90 | 0.63 | 57.03 | 0.734 | 7.7 | 99.51 | |
| DF33 | 14.10 | 2.11 | 9.45 | 1.49 | 1.91 | 3.92 | 1.16 | 57.55 | 0.692 | 7.49 | 99.87 | |
| DF34 | 16.09 | 2.03 | 10.19 | 1.68 | 2.01 | 3.54 | 1.14 | 54.58 | 0.784 | 8.05 | 100.11 | |
| Mean | 15.59 | 1.30 | 10.08 | 1.60 | 2.33 | 4.02 | 0.38 | 55.53 | 0.75 | 8.28 | ||
| STD | 0.98 | 1.04 | 0.48 | 0.12 | 0.28 | 0.45 | 0.23 | 2.50 | 0.04 | 0.87 | ||
| SA1 | SA group: Sediment from sterile areas east of Feature 1 | 14.02 | 4.70 | 9.12 | 1.44 | 4.29 | 3.60 | 0.75 | 48.99 | 0.666 | 11.89 | 99.47 |
| SA2 | 15.12 | 0.81 | 10.52 | 1.56 | 2.48 | 5.14 | 0.16 | 54.71 | 0.7 | 8.34 | 99.54 | |
| SA3 | 13.00 | 5.05 | 9.03 | 1.36 | 4.67 | 4.19 | 0.68 | 47.76 | 0.615 | 12.47 | 98.84 | |
| SA4 | 15.46 | 0.88 | 12.84 | 2.01 | 2.59 | 7.06 | 0.19 | 48.44 | 0.648 | 9.18 | 99.30 | |
| SA5 | 13.34 | 3.71 | 8.88 | 1.37 | 3.94 | 3.75 | 0.47 | 52.66 | 0.659 | 10.71 | 99.48 | |
| SA6 | 15.32 | 0.81 | 10.99 | 1.76 | 2.45 | 6.24 | 0.14 | 51.72 | 0.704 | 9.05 | 99.19 | |
| SA7 | 13.19 | 4.85 | 8.99 | 1.37 | 4.52 | 3.94 | 0.55 | 48.99 | 0.642 | 12.32 | 99.36 | |
| SA8 | 14.29 | 3.16 | 10.22 | 1.52 | 3.75 | 4.40 | 0.41 | 49.87 | 0.708 | 10.82 | 99.14 | |
| Mean | 14.22 | 3.00 | 10.07 | 1.55 | 3.58 | 4.79 | 0.42 | 50.39 | 0.67 | 10.60 | ||
| STD | 0.99 | 1.89 | 1.38 | 0.23 | 0.94 | 1.26 | 0.24 | 2.41 | 0.03 | 1.59 | ||
| SB1 | SB group: Sediment from within Feature 1 | 14.85 | 0.82 | 8.99 | 1.58 | 1.52 | 4.53 | 0.14 | 58.77 | 0.652 | 7.41 | 99.25 |
| SB2 | 14.49 | 1.20 | 9.92 | 1.42 | 2.18 | 4.31 | 0.46 | 56.52 | 0.682 | 7.8 | 98.99 | |
| SB3 | 16.65 | 0.72 | 8.83 | 1.50 | 1.68 | 3.48 | 0.09 | 57.65 | 0.713 | 7.97 | 99.28 | |
| Mean | 15.33 | 0.91 | 9.24 | 1.50 | 1.79 | 4.11 | 0.23 | 57.65 | 0.68 | 7.73 | ||
| STD | 1.16 | 0.25 | 0.59 | 0.08 | 0.35 | 0.55 | 0.20 | 1.13 | 0.03 | 0.29 | ||
| SC1 | SC group: Sediment between Features 1 and 2 | 15.32 | 0.76 | 8.25 | 1.69 | 1.38 | 2.68 | 0.14 | 61.98 | 0.767 | 6.8 | 99.77 |
| SC2 | 17.10 | 0.54 | 9.30 | 1.74 | 1.59 | 3.24 | 0.10 | 56.77 | 0.827 | 8.24 | 99.45 | |
| SC3 | 12.03 | 0.69 | 7.45 | 1.42 | 1.37 | 3.72 | 0.10 | 65.79 | 0.561 | 6.18 | 99.30 | |
| SC4 | 15.43 | 0.95 | 10.57 | 1.64 | 1.86 | 5.24 | 0.35 | 53.63 | 0.717 | 9.16 | 99.55 | |
| Mean | 14.97 | 0.73 | 8.89 | 1.62 | 1.55 | 3.72 | 0.17 | 59.54 | 0.72 | 7.60 | ||
| STD | 2.12 | 0.17 | 1.35 | 0.14 | 0.23 | 1.10 | 0.12 | 5.40 | 0.11 | 1.35 | ||
| SE1 | SE group: Sediment from vertical profile south of Feature 1 | 15.03 | 0.86 | 10.31 | 1.59 | 2.11 | 4.83 | 0.23 | 55.68 | 0.719 | 7.91 | 99.27 |
| SE2 | 14.17 | 0.764 | 10.03 | 1.47 | 2.08 | 4.498 | 0.17 | 58.16 | 0.667 | 7.54 | 99.55 | |
| SE3 | 16.01 | 0.332 | 7.346 | 1.54 | 1.58 | 0.498 | 0.1 | 65.01 | 0.959 | 6.25 | 99.62 | |
| SE4 | 15.3 | 0.731 | 10.36 | 1.55 | 2.28 | 4.697 | 0.15 | 55.66 | 0.731 | 8.05 | 99.52 | |
| SE5 | 15 | 0.688 | 10.27 | 1.55 | 2.39 | 4.882 | 0.15 | 55.38 | 0.708 | 8.12 | 99.13 | |
| Mean | 15.10 | 0.68 | 9.66 | 1.54 | 2.09 | 3.88 | 0.16 | 57.98 | 0.76 | 7.57 | ||
| STD | 0.66 | 0.20 | 1.30 | 0.05 | 0.31 | 1.90 | 0.05 | 4.09 | 0.12 | 0.77 | ||
| FS2280 | Puzzle Box excavation | 15.16 | 1.17 | 9.065 | 1.6 | 2.17 | 16.05 | 0.17 | 41.21 | 0.66 | 10.66 | 97.92 |
Appendix 6—table 3
Trace element and rare earth elements (REEs) results.
Separate Excel spreadsheet. Appendix 4: Instrumental parameters for WDXRFS (MagiX PRO). Measurements were carried out under vacuum with a rhodium X-ray tube without tube filter, a sample spinner, 25 mm collimator mask, and a flow counter. Elements were analyzed in the order of decreasing X-ray energy; i.e., from Ni to Na.
| Element and X-ray line | Crystal | Collimator | Tube kV | Offset Bg1 (°2θ) | Offset Bg2 (°2θ) | PHD1 LL | PHD1 UL | Comment |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ni Kα | LiF 220 | 150 µm | 60 | –1.23 | 1.9 | 23 | 59 | |
| Fe Kα | LiF 220 | 150 µm | 60 | –3.25 | 5 | 18 | 60 | |
| Mn Kα | LiF 220 | 150 µm | 60 | –3.7 | 4.91 | 16 | 61 | |
| Cr Kα | LiF 220 | 150 µm | 50 | –2.4 | 2.95 | 14 | 60 | |
| V Kα | LiF 220 | 150 µm | 50 | –2.2 | 2.75 | 12 | 61 | |
| Ti Kα | LiF 200 | 150 µm | 40 | 36 | 62 | Used bg meas. of Ba. | ||
| Ba Lα | LiF 200 | 150 µm | 40 | –4.95 | 2.14 | 36 | 62 | |
| Ca Kα | LiF 200 | 150 µm | 30 | –4.7 | 3.55 | 36 | 62 | |
| K Kα | LiF 200 | 150 µm | 30 | –5.3 | 5.5 | 36 | 63 | |
| S Kα | Ge 111 | 550 µm | 30 | 5.7 | 35 | 64 | Bg factor 1.16. | |
| P Kα | Ge 111 | 550 µm | 30 | –10.24 | 6.5 | 35 | 64 | |
| Si Kα | PE 002 | 550 µm | 30 | –4.2 | 5.69 | 33 | 67 | |
| Br Lβ1 | PE 002 | 550 µm | 30 | 33 | 67 | Used bg of Al. | ||
| Al Kα | PE 002 | 550 µm | 30 | –11.28 | 32 | 67 | Bg factor 1.0. | |
| Mg Kα | PX1 | 150 µm | 30 | -2 | 34 | 66 | Used bg1 meas. of Na. | |
| Na Kα | PX1 | 150 µm | 30 | –2.384 | 2 | 32 | 68 |
-
Notes: LL and UL are the lower and upper level, respectively, of the pulse height analyser window. PX1 is a synthetic multilayer with a nominal 2d spacing of 5 nm.
Appendix 6—table 4
Instrument parameters for ICPMS (NexION, Perkin-Elmer).
| Sample introduction system | Cross-flow with Scott double-pass spray chamber |
|---|---|
| Nebuliser gas flow | Ca. 0.8–0.9 L/min |
| Sample uptake rate | Ca. 1 mL/min |
| Skimmer cones | Nickel |
| RF power | 1200 W |
| Data acquisition | Peak hopping mode, 20 sweeps per reading, 1 reading per replicate, 3 replicates. Dwell time 40ms. |
Additional files
-
Supplementary file 1
Trace element and rare earth elements (REEs) results.
- https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/89106/elife-89106-supp1-v1.xlsx
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Evidence for deliberate burial of the dead by Homo naledi
eLife 12:RP89106.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.89106.3
