Agent-based model demonstrates the impact of nonlinear, complex interactions between cytokinces on muscle regeneration

  1. Megan Haase
  2. Tien Comlekoglu
  3. Alexa Petrucciani
  4. Shayn M Peirce
  5. Silvia S Blemker  Is a corresponding author
  1. University of Virginia, United States
  2. Purdue University, United States
7 figures, 9 tables and 8 additional files

Figures

Figure 1 with 1 supplement
Overview of agent-based model (ABM) simulation of muscle regeneration following an acute injury.

(A) Simulated cross-sections of a muscle fascicle that was initially defined by spatial geometry from a histology image. Muscle injury was simulated by replacing a section of the healthy fibers with necrotic elements. In response to the injury, a variety of factors are secreted in the microenvironment which impacts the behavior of the cells. The colors correspond with those typically seen in H&E staining. (B) ABM screen captures show the spatial locations of the cells throughout the 28-day simulation. The agent colors were matched to those typically seen in IHC-stained muscle sections. Scale bar: 50 µm.

Figure 1—figure supplement 1
Overview of agent-based model (ABM) simulation with different initial histology configuration.

Scale bar: 50 µm.

Flowchart of agent-based model (ABM) rules.

The model starts with initialization of the geometry and the prescribed injury. This is followed by recruitment of cells based on relative cytokine amounts within the microenvironment. The inflammatory cells, SSCs, and fibroblasts follow their literature-defined rules and probability-based decision tree to govern their behaviors. The boxes represent the behavior that the agent completes during that timestep given the appropriate conditions and the circles represent the uptake that occurs as a result of the simulated binding with microenvironmental factors for certain cell behaviors. ABM, agent-based model; SSC, satellite stem cell; ECM, extracellular matrix; TGF-β, transforming growth factor beta; HGF, hepatocyte growth factor; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha; VEGF-A, vascular endothelial growth factor A; MMP-9, matrix metalloproteinase-9; MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; IL-10; interleukin 10.

Figure 3 with 1 supplement
Agent-based model (ABM) calibration and validation.

ABM parameters were calibrated so that model outputs for cross-sectional area (CSA) recovery, satellite stem cell (SSC), and fibroblast counts were consistent with experimental data (A–C). (Murphy et al., 2011; Ochoa et al., 2007). Separate outputs from those used in calibration were compared to experimental data (Hardy et al., 2016; Ochoa et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2018; Nguyen et al., 2011) to validate the ABM (D–H). Error bars represent experimental standard deviation, and model 95% confidence interval is indicated by the shaded region. Cell count data were normalized by number of cells on the day of the experimental peak to allow for comparison between experiments and simulations.

Figure 3—figure supplement 1
Overview of calibration methods.

Latin hypercube sampling is used to generate 600 unique parameter sets given starting bounds, each of which was run in triplicate. The simulations were filtered given specified criteria (i.e. fitting within experimental bounds for cross-sectional area [CSA] recovery) and then alternative density subtraction (ADS) was used to narrow in the parameter bounds. Partial rank correlation coefficient (PRCC) was used to gain insight into model sensitivity and adjust the bounds in case initial parameter bounds were too wide or too narrow. This method also allowed for model rule execution refinement to correct cases that interfere with the dynamics of other cell types.

Agent-based model (ABM) perturbation outputs are compared to various literature experimental results.

Each perturbation model output is compared to the available corresponding published result. The top triangles indicate the literature findings and the bottom triangles indicate the model outputs. Red triangles represent a decrease, blue represents an increase, and gray represents no significant change. Timepoints of comparison were based on which timepoints were available from published experimental data. Refer to Table 8 for model input conditions and Supplementary file 7 for information on experimental references.

Dose-dependent response with vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) injection compared to hindered angiogenesis.

VEGF-A concentration response to varied levels of VEGF injection (A). Hindered angiogenesis resulted in slower and overall decreased cross-sectional area (CSA) recovery (B). Capillary count was dependent on VEGF-A injection level (C). Total macrophage count was similar between control and VEGF-A injections perturbations but macrophage count was higher in later timepoints in the hindered angiogenesis simulation (D). Satellite stem cell (SSC) peak varied with VEGF-A injection level and counts were prolonged in the hindered angiogenesis simulations (E). The fibroblast peak was lower for the hindered angiogenesis perturbation and highest with the extra high VEGF-A injection. In contrast to the other simulations, the fibroblast count was trending upward at later timepoints in the hindered angiogenesis perturbation (F). Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) levels were consistent between control and VEGF-A injection perturbations but was significantly elevated in the hindered angiogenesis perturbation (G). Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), and interleukin 10 (IL-10) concentrations were elevated at later stages of regeneration with hindered angiogenesis (H, I, L). Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) was elevated with the extra high VEGF-A injection and lower with hindered angiogenesis (J). Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) concentration was lower at the simulation midpoint but elevated at late regeneration stages (K).

Heatmaps of changes in cytokine concentration at various timepoints throughout regeneration following individual cytokine knockout (KO) demonstrating cross-talk between cytokines.

With monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) KO there was an increase in all cytokines except vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) at 12 hr post injury. Over the course of regeneration there was continued increasing elevation of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), increases in VEGF-A, and transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) decreased at day 7 followed by a strong increase by day 28 post injury (A). In the tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) KO simulations, there was an early decrease in TGF-β that shifts to strong increases by day 28. Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) increased throughout the duration, HGF and interleukin 10 (IL-10) were decreased, VEGF-A lagged in the beginning but was increased during mid to late timepoints (B). Following IL-10 KO there were increases in TNF-α, decreases in HGF and TGF-β, and elevated MMP-9 at day 7 that decreased by day 28 (C).

Figure 7 with 3 supplements
Combined alterations of various cytokine dynamics enhance muscle regeneration outcomes.

All tested alterations except higher monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) decay resulted in higher cross-sectional area (CSA) recovery compared to the control (A). M1 cell count was higher for all perturbations with the highest peaks with increased MCP-1 diffusion and the combined cytokine alteration perturbation (B). Higher MCP-1 decay resulted in the largest M2 peak and higher MCP-1 diffusion, higher transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) decay, and the combined cytokine alteration had a lower M2 peak than the control (C). Fibroblasts had the largest increase in cell count with the higher TGF-β decay and the cytokine combination perturbations (D). All perturbations resulted in an increased satellite stem cell (SSC) count with the largest increase resulting from the combined cytokine alteration (E). All perturbations except the combined and higher matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) decay resulted in increased capillaries as a result of additional capillary sprouts (F).

Figure 7—figure supplement 1
Partial rank correlation coefficient (PRCC) plots for various model outputs over time to illustrate how the significance of cytokine decay and diffusion parameters varies at different points throughout regeneration.

Black dots indicate statistically significant (p<0.05) correlation for that timepoint. (A) Cross-sectional area (CSA) recovery had correlations with hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) decay. (B) Satellite stem cell (SSC) count was correlated with HGF, TGF-β, MMP-9 decay and MCP-1 and TND diffusion. (C) Fibroblast count was correlated with HGF, TGF-β, MMP-9, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) decay. (D) HGF, TGF-β, MMP-9, VGEF decay, and MCP-1 diffusion were correlated with the number of non-perfused capillaries. (E) Myoblast cell count was correlated with HGF, TGF-β, MMP-9, and interleukin 10 (IL-10) decay. (F) Myocyte cell count was correlated with HGF, TGF-β, and MMP-9 decay and TNF-α diffusion. (G) HGF and MCP-1 decay as well as MCP-1 diffusion were correlated with neutrophil count. (H) M1 macrophage cell count was correlated with TGF-β, vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A), IL-10, and MCP-1 decay and MCP-1 diffusion. (I) M2 macrophage count was correlated with HGF, TGF-β, MMP-9, TNF-α, VEGF-A, MCP-1 decay, and MCP-1 diffusion.

Figure 7—figure supplement 2
Cytokine concentrations are correlated with cell counts and recovery metrics at various stages of regeneration.

There is an optimal monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) concentration that tends to result in higher M1 counts 1 day post injury (A). Interleukin 10 (IL-10) concentration is positively correlated with M2 count 3 days post injury (B). Vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) concentration is negatively correlated with the number of fragmented (non-perfused) capillaries 5 days post injury (C). Higher transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) concentrations tend to result in lower satellite stem cell (SSC) cell count 7 days post injury (D). Fibroblasts cell count is highest at an optimal tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) concentration with higher or lower levels hindering cell count 14 days post injury (E). Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) concentration is positively correlated with cross-sectional area (CSA) recovery at day 28 post injury but there appears to be a threshold where high HGF is no longer correlated with increased recovery (F).

Figure 7—figure supplement 3
Non-perfused capillaries for each cytokine perturbation.

The combined cytokine perturbation had the lowest number of non-perfused capillaries and all other perturbations resulted in less non-perfused capillaries compared to the control.

Tables

Table 1
Neutrophil agent rules.
Neutrophil agent behaviorSources
Recruitment signal: necrosisMadaro and Bouché, 2014
Neutrophils are brought to site of injury via capillariesWang et al., 2020
Phagocytose necrosisButterfield et al., 2006
Secretes MMP-9, MCP-1, TNF-α during phagocytosisMartin et al., 2016; Madaro and Bouché, 2014; Wang, 2018; Soehnlein et al., 2008
Undergoes apoptosis after phagocytosis or 12.5 hrFox et al., 2010
Migrates toward areas of high HGFMolnarfi et al., 2015
Migration speed ~7.5 µm/minZhao et al., 2020; Heit et al., 2008
Table 2
Macrophage agent rules.
Macrophage agent behaviorSources
Initial count: 1 resident macrophage per 5 myofibersOishi and Manabe, 2018
Recruitment signal: MCP-1Vogel et al., 2014; Chazaud et al., 2003
Monocytes are brought to the site of injury via microvesselsKratofil et al., 2017
Resident macrophages secrete MMP-9, MCP-1, and TNF-α and chemotax along MCP-1 and HGFElkington et al., 2009; Chen and Nuñez, 2010; Lacy and Stow, 2011; Vogel et al., 2014; Molnarfi et al., 2015; Furrer and Handschin, 2017
Monocytes chemotax along MCP-1, VEGF-A, and TGF-βChazaud et al., 2003; Owen and Mohamadzadeh, 2013; Reibman et al., 1991; Martin et al., 2017
Monocyte migration speed ~4 µm/minvan den Bos et al., 2020
M1 macrophages secrete VEGF-A, MMP-9, and TNF-α and chemotax along MCP-1Corliss et al., 2016; Newby, 2008; Lu et al., 2018; Cui et al., 2018
Monocytes, resident, and M1 macrophages phagocytose apoptotic neutrophils and necrosisGreenlee-Wacker, 2016; Watanabe et al., 2019; Uribe-Querol and Rosales, 2020
Monocytes and macrophages secrete MMP-9, HGF, TGF-β, and IL-10 during phagocytosisMartin et al., 2016; Yoon et al., 2016; D’Angelo et al., 2013; Popov et al., 2010; Arnold et al., 2007; Chung et al., 2007
Monocyte transitions into M1 occurs when TNF-α threshold is met or based on literature means and standard deviation propertiesArnold et al., 2007; Mosser and Edwards, 2008
M1 transition into M2 is mediated by the amount of IL-10 and the amount the M1 has phagocytosedMartin et al., 2016; Arnold et al., 2007; Saini et al., 2016; Das et al., 2015
M2 macrophages secrete TGF-β and IL-10 and chemotax along MCP-1Martin et al., 2016; Vogel et al., 2014; Arabpour et al., 2021; da Silva et al., 2015
Macrophages can proliferate following the transition to the anti-inflammatory (M2) stateArnold et al., 2007
Macrophage migration speed ~0.62 µm/minvan den Bos et al., 2020
Macrophages apoptose in a Poisson distributionMoncayo, 2007
Table 3
SSC agent rules.
SSC agent behaviorSources
Initial count: 1 SSC per 4 fibersVirgilio et al., 2018; Reimann et al., 2000
Recruitment signal: HGF + MMP-9 - TGF-βVirgilio et al., 2018; Kawamura et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2009; Allen and Boxhorn, 1989; González et al., 2017
Activation signal: HGFVirgilio et al., 2018; González et al., 2017; Allen et al., 1995; Miller et al., 2000; Tatsumi et al., 1998
Activated SSCs secrete MCP-1 and VEGF-AChazaud et al., 2003
Activated SSCs migrate toward areas of high MMP-9Wang et al., 2009; Chen and Li, 2009
Myoblasts migrate toward high TNF-αTorrente et al., 2003
Division signal: TNF-α + VEGF-A - TGF-βVirgilio et al., 2018; Allen and Boxhorn, 1989; Bakkar et al., 2008; Saclier et al., 2013
Differentiation signal: 3*IL-10 - HGF - TNF-α - TGF-βVirgilio et al., 2018; Saini et al., 2016; Perandini et al., 2018; Gal-Levi et al., 1998; Ten Broek et al., 2010
Activated SSCs differentiate into myoblasts, myoblasts into myocytes, and myocytes into myotubes/myofibersCooper et al., 1999; Flamini et al., 2018; Bentzinger et al., 2012
Differentiated myocytes fuse at damaged fiber edge or fuse together to form new, immature myotubesYin et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2014; Nguyen et al., 2019; Ruiz-Gómez et al., 2002
50% cell divisions are symmetric, 50% asymmetricVirgilio et al., 2018; Kuang et al., 2007; Yennek et al., 2014
Division probability decreases with each cell division; first division 85%; second 65%; third 20%Virgilio et al., 2018; Siegel et al., 2011
VEGF-A and macrophages nearby can block apoptosisChazaud et al., 2003; Arsic et al., 2004; Sonnet et al., 2006
TGF-β triggers apoptosisCencetti et al., 2013
Time to divide: 10 hrVirgilio et al., 2018; Siegel et al., 2011; Rocheteau et al., 2012
Migration speed ~0.94 µm/minOtto et al., 2011
Return activated SSCs to quiescence without sustained HGFGonzález et al., 2017
Table 4
Fibroblast agent rules.
Fibroblast agent behaviorSources
Initial count: 1 fibroblast per every 2 fibersVirgilio et al., 2018; Murphy et al., 2011
Activation signal: TGF-βGibb et al., 2020
Fibroblasts move to low collagen ECMVirgilio et al., 2018; Dickinson et al., 1994
Fibroblasts secrete TNF-α, TGF-β, MMP-9, VEGF-A. Collagen is secreted at low-density ECMVirgilio et al., 2018; Zou et al., 2008; Sanderson et al., 1986; Yokoyama et al., 1999; Skutek et al., 2001; Lindner et al., 2012; Newman et al., 2011
Fibroblast division signaled by SSC divisionVirgilio et al., 2018; Murphy et al., 2011
Division probability decreases with each cell division; first division 100%; second 25%; third 6%Alberts et al., 2002
Fibroblast differentiation into myofibroblasts with extended TGF-β exposureVirgilio et al., 2018; Desmoulière et al., 1993; Wipff et al., 2007
Myofibroblasts secrete double the amount of collagen and secretion is not dependent on collagen densityVirgilio et al., 2018; Petrov et al., 2002
Fibroblasts apoptose with sustained exposure to TNF-αVirgilio et al., 2018; Lemos et al., 2015
Fibroblast migration speed ~0.73 µm/minCornwell et al., 2004
Sufficient TGF-β can block fibroblast apoptosisVirgilio et al., 2018; Lemos et al., 2015
Table 5
Fiber agent rules.
Fiber agent behaviorSources
Damaged muscle fibers secrete HGF and TGF-βMiller et al., 2000; Kim and Lee, 2017
Healthy fibers secrete VEGF-AHuey, 2018
Fibers that are fully necrotic are fusion incompetent, but damaged fibers are fusion competentSnijders et al., 2015
Immature myotubes gain functional capacity as they fully mature over timeNguyen et al., 2019; Abmayr and Pavlath, 2012; Isesele and Mazurak, 2021
Table 6
Microvasculature rules.
Microvessel agent behaviorSources
Initial count: ~4 capillaries per fiber, 1 lymphatic vessel per fascicleWickler, 1981; Gehlert et al., 2010
Capillaries near necrosis will become damaged and unable to perfuseJacobsen et al., 2021
With sufficient VEGF-A damaged capillaries will undergo angiogenesisFrey et al., 2012
MMP-9 is elevated during capillary growthHaas et al., 2000; Qutub et al., 2009
Increasing capillary-to-myofiber ratio during muscle regeneration from new sprouting capillaries at areas with enough MMP-9 and VEGF-AJacobsen et al., 2021; Hardy et al., 2016; Haas et al., 2000
Cells and cytokines near lymphatic vessel will be drained via the vessel and removed from microenvironmentHampton and Chtanova, 2019
Table 7
Model parameters of spatial mechanisms.
ParameterValueSource/justification
Volume parameters
Target volume neutrophil12Chosen for an average cell diameter of 12 μm (Tigner et al., 2021)
Target volume SSC10Chosen for an average cell diameter of 10 μm (Garcia et al., 2018)
Target volume macrophage21Chosen for an average cell diameter of 21 μm (Krombach et al., 1997)
Target volume monocyte8.5Chosen for an average cell diameter of 8.5 μm (Downey et al., 1990)
Target volume fibroblast15Chosen for an average cell diameter of 15 μm (Freitas, 1999)
Volume multiplier λvolume50Volume constraint to maintain target (Swat et al., 2012)
Diffusion coefficients
HGF66.38 μm2/sEstimated diffusivity within the ECM accounting for baseline GAGs and collagen (Filion and Popel, 2005)
MMP-963.40 μm2/s
MCP-1189.27 μm2/s
VEGF-A112.10 μm2/s
TGF-β90.33 μm2/s
TNF-α138.95 μm2/s
IL-10135.17 μm2/s
Chemotaxis parameters λc
Neutrophils750Chosen for a cell velocity between 1 and 20 µm/min (Zhao et al., 2020)
Macrophage9.3Chosen for a cell velocity around 0.62 µm/min (van den Bos et al., 2020)
Monocyte75Chosen for a cell velocity around 4 µm/min (van den Bos et al., 2020)
SSC11.3Chosen for a cell velocity around 0.94 µm/min (Otto et al., 2011)
Fibroblast23Chosen for a cell velocity around 0.73 µm/min (Westman et al., 2021)
Table 8
Model perturbation input conditions and corresponding published experimental results.
PerturbationSpecific model conditionsPublished outcomes
IL-10 knockoutAdjust diffusion and decay parameters so IL-10 is removed from the systemAttenuates shift to M2, disrupted SSC differentiation, slowed regeneration (Deng et al., 2012)
Neutrophil depletionLower neutrophil recruitment proportionAbundant necrotic tissue 7 days post injury (Teixeira et al., 2003)
Macrophage depletionLower macrophage recruitment proportionDecreased HGF, increased TGF-β and TNF-α, impaired regeneration (Liu et al., 2017)
MCP-1 knockoutAdjust diffusion and decay parameters so MCP-1 is removed from the systemIncreased necrosis at day 7, lower CSA at day 21, impaired phagocytosis (Lu et al., 2011)
Directed M2 polarization (anti-inflammatory nanoparticles)Require less phagocytosis and IL-10 for transitionImproved muscle histology and inflammatory resolution (Raimondo and Mooney, 2018)
TNF-α knockoutAdjust diffusion and decay parameters so TNF-α is removed from the systemImpaired recovery at days 5 and 12, increased inflammation (Chen et al., 2005)
Hindered angiogenesisIncrease VEGF-A and MMP-9 threshold required for angiogenesisDelayed regeneration with toxin injury, and persistent immune cell infiltration with freeze injury (Hardy et al., 2019)
VEGF-A injectionAdd VEGF-A at specified concentration (100 for low and 1000 relative concentration for high), radius (300 pixels), and timepoint (5 days post injury)Lower injury area at day 20 post injury with injection 5 days after damage (Arsic et al., 2004)
Table 9
Summary of cytokine sensitivity analysis.

Significance was determined with α=0.05, and a Bonferroni correction for the number of tests. + and - represent statistically significant positive and negative correlations, respectively.

CSASSCFibroblastsNon-perfused capillariesMyoblastsMyocytesNeutrophilsM1M2
Day16.76.310.58.46.38.48.44.26.3
HGF decay---+--++
TGF-β decay+++-+-
MMP-9 decay+++-++
TNF-α decay+-
VEGF-A decay+
MCP-1 decay++
MCP-1 diffusion+-+

Additional files

Supplementary file 1

Unknown model parameters calibrated using Latin hypercube sampling (LHS) to recapitulate published literature.

https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/91924/elife-91924-supp1-v1.docx
Supplementary file 2

Cytokine perturbations based on partial rank correlation coefficient (PRCC).

https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/91924/elife-91924-supp2-v1.docx
Supplementary file 3

Cellular-Potts model (CPM) mathematical implementation.

https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/91924/elife-91924-supp3-v1.docx
Supplementary file 4

Cellular-Potts model (CPM) agent adhesion parameters.

https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/91924/elife-91924-supp4-v1.docx
Supplementary file 5

Cellular-Potts model (CPM) initialization model parameters.

https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/91924/elife-91924-supp5-v1.docx
Supplementary file 6

Criteria utilized for CaliPro model calibration.

https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/91924/elife-91924-supp6-v1.docx
Supplementary file 7

Experimental data description for model comparison.

https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/91924/elife-91924-supp7-v1.docx
MDAR checklist
https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/91924/elife-91924-mdarchecklist1-v1.pdf

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  1. Megan Haase
  2. Tien Comlekoglu
  3. Alexa Petrucciani
  4. Shayn M Peirce
  5. Silvia S Blemker
(2024)
Agent-based model demonstrates the impact of nonlinear, complex interactions between cytokinces on muscle regeneration
eLife 13:RP91924.
https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.91924.3