When exposed to prolonged stressful stimulation, rats start to emit long, frequency-unmodulated 44-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations, usually within the 35–50 kHz range, along with, previously described, long and unmodulated 22-kHz ultrasonic vocalizations.

Conditioned olivocerebellar network activity elicits transient spike pauses and timed spike facilitation in the neurons of interposed nuclei that predicts and likely causes conditioned eyelid responses on a trial-by-trial basis.

A more complete, bidirectional relationship between fear conditioning and behavior is established when many behaviors are examined, as opposed to single behavior such as freezing.

Neurons in the lateral habenula are activated by pain, bitterness and social defeat, and their responses are dynamically shaped by learning, suggesting a role in experience-dependent selection of behavioral actions to stressors.

Associative and non-associative learning mechanisms summate to produce robust and complex conditioned behavior profiles, opening new avenues to in-depth investigations of defensive responses and threat evaluation.

Reward-related cues elicit phasic changes in activity in ventral pallidum neurons, which predict and functionally contribute to the speed of behaviors trained on the basis of act-outcome, but not stimulus-outcome, contingencies.

Comprehensive behavioral ethograms reveal a fear conditioned cue to elicit a temporally organized suite of behaviors spanning freezing, locomotion, rearing, and jumping.

Individual neurons in a surprising number of frontal cortical regions encode the value of reward-predicting olfactory cues across distinct stimulus sets and experimental sessions.

The subcortical visual pathway through the midbrain superior colliculus is responsible for visually evoked Pavlovian conditioning and dopamine neuron responses with predicted value in monkeys, which remained after lesioning V1.

A computational model explains how the brain chooses between creating a new memory versus updating an old one when faced with an event that defies expectations.