Comprehensive behavioral ethograms reveal a fear conditioned cue to elicit a temporally organized suite of behaviors spanning freezing, locomotion, rearing, and jumping.

Reliability and predictability analyses beyond standard measures provide empirically based guidance regarding the design of fear conditioning tasks to assess individual differences and group-level inferences cross-sectionally and longitudinally.

Female, but not male rats exhibit an active conditioned fear response, which challenges traditional approaches to measuring fear learning exclusively through freezing, and suggests that females use a more diverse set of threat strategies.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 activates the prefrontal cortex and improves the extinction of aversive memories.

Associative and non-associative learning mechanisms summate to produce robust and complex conditioned behavior profiles, opening new avenues to in-depth investigations of defensive responses and threat evaluation.

A whole brain analysis using human neuroimaging data shows neural correlates of individual differences in conditioned fear.

Cerebellar-periaqueductal grey interactions contribute to fear-conditioned processes and, as such, provide a novel target for treating psychological conditions including post-traumatic stress disorder.

Single-unit activity in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray, a brain region implicated in organizing fear output, is found to reflect threat probability, a more versatile threat signal.

Behavioral analyses show that individuals insensitive to punishment are afraid of aversive events, they are simply unable to change their behaviour to avoid them.

A more complete, bidirectional relationship between fear conditioning and behavior is established when many behaviors are examined, as opposed to single behavior such as freezing.