Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is estimated to account for 300 million chronic infections and 1 million deaths each year (World Health Organization, 2021). The global burden of HBV infection is unevenly distributed, with particularly high prevalence in some populations in Africa and South East Asia (Cooke et al., 2019). Likewise, HBV is not experienced equally across society, with a disproportionate prevalence and impact on marginalised and deprived populations, whose needs are poorly met by existing healthcare research, services, interventions and policies (O’Hara et al., 2017; Figure 1A). The ‘inclusion health’ agenda focuses on these populations, setting out to identify and address health and social inequities, for example barriers to accessing mainstream healthcare services (Royal College of Physicians, 2022; Aldridge et al., 2018). These groups include, but are not limited to, migrants in vulnerable situations, people experiencing homelessness (PEH), individuals with substance use disorders, commercial sex workers (CSW), incarcerated individuals, and Roma and Traveller communities (Royal College of Physicians, 2022).

Figure 1

Download asset Open asset

Viral hepatitis is recognised as a global health priority within the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 2030 (SDG30). These underpin ambitious targets including 90% HBV vaccine coverage, reducing new chronic infections and new infections by 90% and attributable mortality by 65% (Cooke et al., 2019). Vaccination against HBV, including universal birth dose administration, is a key elimination strategy and is estimated to have prevented 310 million cases of HBV infection between 1990 and 2020 (Cooke et al., 2019, de Villiers et al., 2021). However, birth dose vaccine implementation has been slow in reaching the most vulnerable populations, while a three-dose vaccine schedule remains a challenge (de Villiers et al., 2021). Lack of education and awareness, inadequate living conditions, lack of access to healthcare services, and poverty and stigma among marginalised populations create a permissive environment for HBV transmission. Chronic HBV infection usually remains asymptomatic until late complications (liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)). Silent infection, in combination with barriers to testing in the most affected populations, explains why only an estimated 10% of those living with HBV infection are diagnosed (O’Hara et al., 2017).

There is no cure for HBV, but antivirals (nucleos(t)ide analogue agents) can suppress viral replication. Based on international treatment guidelines, only a minority of those with chronic infection are eligible for treatment, and a small proportion of these can actually access consistent therapy (McNaughton et al., 2021). Risk stratification requires consistent surveillance (including clinical review, imaging and laboratory tests), but this can feel burdensome and irrelevant for some people living with asymptomatic infection and/or those who do not meet treatment criteria (Mofokeng, 2021, Adjei et al., 2019). Moreover, HBV receives only a fraction of global research funding allocated to major infectious diseases. For example, in 2022, projected US funding for HIV research is 20-fold greater than for HBV, despite the lower number of people living with HIV infection (National institutes of health, 2022). Therefore, HBV remains a major public health threat, with 1.5 million new infections each year and more annual deaths than malaria or HIV (O’Hara et al., 2017, Graber-Stiehl, 2018).

An advocate with lived experience of HBV infection described the HBV community as ‘the forgotten people’, a description that is also pertinent to inclusion health populations (Matthews et al., 2022a, Aldridge et al., 2018). These exclusions may lead to an increased risk of HBV infection, are amplified by HBV infection, and lead to greater morbidity and mortality as a result of inadequate access to care. In resource-limited settings, where the burden of HBV infection is greatest, the inequities are amplified.

We have collated evidence for the impact of HBV in some of these marginalised populations globally, assimilating data and identifying knowledge gaps in order to inform the HBV agenda in inclusion health. Addressing the complex intersection of social exclusion and HBV infection is essential to support progress towards global elimination goals.

Enhancing HBV within the Inclusion Health Agenda: The next steps

In this section, we consider how the current evidence informs policy and practical strategies to advance prevention, diagnosis, clinical care and treatment for people living with HBV infection in groups who have been under-served to date.

Close the data gap

There are clear SDG30 goals for HBV, but it is impossible to determine the nature and magnitude of the challenge, benchmark progress, or deploy appropriate interventions without accurate epidemiological data. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control report major data gaps, now exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic, with the worst impact in high-burden (often low income) settings, hampering progress towards elimination (Pley et al., 2021). Good quality HBV data for inclusion health populations are lacking, mostly reporting from small, independent, cross sectional seroprevalence studies (summarised in Table 2). Unified, transparent data collection will require increased awareness, advocacy, funding and research, with coordination between organisations (e.g. World Health Organization, United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control) to help standardise and strengthen approaches. Crucially, evidence is needed to underpin solution-based methods rather than simply describing problems (Luchenski et al., 2018; Siersbaek et al., 2021).

Active case finding

Active targeted screening efforts are an important step towards HBV elimination (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2021; Lemoine et al., 2015). Availability of point-of-care hepatitis B surface antigen tests enable community-based diagnosis, although global efforts are needed to prioritise regular supply in resource-constrained settings (Lemoine et al., 2015). For migrants, community-based testing strategies are effective, with highest uptake in programmes with endorsement from the local community (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2018; Robotin and George, 2014). Outreach screening is equally important in other inclusion health populations, for example, PEH and PWID (Box 1). Such outreach screening services have been shown to be feasible and acceptable (O’Carroll et al., 2017, Carr et al., 2014), and can also be incorporated into other services (e.g. drug harm reduction programmes).

Box 1

Case studies of inclusion health interventions.

1. RESPOND (Farrant et al., 2022): RESPOND is a team from University College London Hospitals in the London borough of Camden, providing rapid access community based integrated screening and care planning for asylum seekers. It was formed to accommodate the needs of the rising number of people seeking asylum in temporary accommodation at the beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic. The aim is to provide a multi-disciplinary, comprehensive assessment and formulate an integrated migrant health plan, an electronic document that outlines the key issues for each family member. This document remains with the family, and is copied to the primary healthcare provider, thus removing the need for repeated assessments after each short notice relocation.

2. Find & Treat (University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, 2013): University College London Hospitals Find & Treat are a specialist outreach team working alongside over 200 NHS and third sector front-line services to tackle TB and blood borne viruses among PEH, PWID, migrants in vulnerable situations or people who have been in prison. The team is multidisciplinary, consisting of people with lived experience working as peer advocates, nurse specialists, social and outreach workers, radiographers, and doctors with primary/secondary care expertise. They use state of the art point of care diagnostics within outreach vans to help overcome barriers in access to care among socially excluded populations.

3. ‘Gypsy & Traveller Exchange’ (Leeds gate, 2022): An example of a successful programme of raising awareness is this programme, led by community members and working in partnership with local services, supported by funding from charitable organisations and local government. Their strategy is to identify community members (or ‘gatekeepers’) who are trusted to facilitate communication with healthcare services, lead cultural awareness training for healthcare workers and provide community outreach and dedicated services for Roma and Traveller populations (McFadden et al., 2018; Condon et al., 2019; Carr et al., 2014). Similar approaches could be successful in other populations to provide education and support.

4. ‘One Stop Liver Shop’ (Hla et al., 2020): The Aboriginal population in the Northern Territory has the highest prevalence of HBV in Australia (6.08% compared to the Non-Indigenous population 1.56%). The ‘One Stop Liver Shop’ was developed iteratively with a very remote Aboriginal community (>500 km from the nearest tertiary hospital in Darwin). It is made up of a specialist doctor, community based Aboriginal Health Practitioner, a sonographer and clinical nurse specialist. They use a portable ultrasound scan, a FibroSan for transient elastography and a mobile device to use the ‘Hep B Story App’, a mobile application using the relevant local language. Visits occur 4 times per year. Due to this initiative, 88% of those aware of their diagnosis were engaged in care and 16% were on treatment.

All pregnant women should be screened for HBV, and healthcare professionals should consider opportunistically offering HBV screening in high-risk groups accessing services (World Health Organization, 2020; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2022). There should also be a move to integrate routine hepatitis screening into high-risk healthcare settings, for example TB, sexual health and HIV services. The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) recommends universal screening in emergency departments in areas where HBV prevalence exceeds 2%, however, evidence suggests that universal emergency department screening is cost effective even at lower prevalence (>0.25%) and therefore the United Kingdom is currently implementing this policy (Williams et al., 2020b, Nebbia et al., 2022).

Multiple studies have demonstrated cost-effectiveness of HBV screening in a variety of different scenarios, including community-based outreach and low prevalence settings (Su et al., 2022, Xiao et al., 2020, Toy et al., 2022, Nayagam et al., 2016, Tordrup et al., 2020, Hutton et al., 2022, Wright et al., 2018). This is largely due to averting high costs associated with decompensated cirrhosis, HCC and liver transplantation.

Rethinking prevention strategies

A safe, effective vaccine against HBV has been available since 1982, and remains a key tool for the elimination of viral hepatitis (World Health Organization, 2017). The WHO has recommended a universal birth dose HBV vaccination since 2009, irrespective of the mother’s serological status, but coverage was still only 42% globally and 17% in the WHO African Region by 2021 (World Health Organization, 2022a). Modelling suggests that scaling up of a timely birth dose vaccine to >90% by 2030 would result in immediate reduction of chronic HBV incidence, and 710,000 fewer deaths in those born between 2020–2030, globally (de Villiers et al., 2021). This strategy would be a particularly important public health intervention for future inclusion health populations, in whom catch-up three-dose adult vaccination is challenging and may not be cost-effective.

While catch-up adult vaccination is not advocated at a general population level, opportunities for providing vaccination to high-risk adults must still be explored and developed, optimising approaches to deliver a three-dose schedule alongside education, proactive antenatal and sexual healthcare, and other health interventions (Box 2).

Box 2

Example methods of increasing HBV vaccination coverage among high-risk groups

1. Universal HBV vaccination in prisons in Scotland (Palmateer et al., 2018).

   • Following prison-related outbreaks of acute HBV among PWID, HBV vaccination for all prisoners was introduced in 1999.

   • Among recent-onset PWID in Glasgow, vaccine uptake increased from 16% in 1993 to 59% in 2009–2014 (p<0.001).

   • HBsAg prevalence 0.3% among people who commenced injecting drugs in the decade since universal vaccination induced, compared to 9% globally.

   • Vaccination is associated with 40% reduced odds of ever having HBV (aOR = 0.6, 95% CI 0.37–0.97).

2. HBV-COMSAVA (Community Screening and Vaccination in Africans) Study, Barcelona, Spain (Picchio et al., 2021).

   • Pop-up clinics at west African migrant faith-based and community organisations.

   • Individuals offered a rapid HBsAg diagnostic test and a dried blood sample for analysing HBV viral load and co-infection with hepatitis D virus.

   • If HBsAg +, same day referral to specialist with expedited referral process which did not require prior appointment.

   • If susceptible, offered HBV vaccine in situ at return appointment (‘return-date slip’ reminder given at first appointment).

   • 70% were susceptible to HBV, 74% returned to receive results and 86% of those who returned accepted vaccination.

3. Sex-worker outreach, Ghent, Belgium (Mak et al., 2003)

   • A medical doctor and social nurse visited the workplaces of sex-workers, discussed professional risks, handed out prevention materials and offered free STI screening (Chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis, HIV), a cervical smear and free HBV vaccination.

   • Psychological and legal programs related to sex work could also be discussed and anonymity guaranteed.

   • Over two-thirds of susceptible sex-workers completed an accelerated HBV vaccination schedule (over 2 months), compared to less than half if given over 6 months.

   • Only 7% were vaccinated in existing services.

Given the slow and heterogenous uptake of birth dose vaccination, and challenges associated with catch-up vaccination of inclusion health populations, other prevention strategies need urgent consideration. For example, the ‘Test and Treat’ strategy which aims to suppress the reservoir of virus in the population (McNaughton et al., 2019). According to current guidelines, only 25–35% of adults with CHB are eligible for treatment, leaving the majority at risk of both longer term complications (relevant to the individual) and the potential for transmission (relevant to populations) (McNaughton et al., 2021). HBV/HIV co-infected individuals may have a treatment advantage, reflecting the benefits of greater access to early and consistent antiviral treatment compared to mono-infected individuals (Maponga et al., 2020). Potential risks should be considered: toxicity and side effects, requirement for monitoring, potential for drug resistance, limited gains from treating well people and the cost of drug and potential diversion of healthcare resources (McNaughton et al., 2021). Further research is required to assess the efficacy, feasibility and acceptability of wider treatment roll out.

Designing inclusive HBV healthcare

Once diagnosed, HBV requires long-term surveillance. However, current models of healthcare fail to provide adequate continuity for inclusion health populations, and innovative solutions are needed. Interventions to reduce the burden of vaccine-preventable infections among migrants can be classified based on the individual, community, provider and system (Charania et al., 2020). This framework can be applied to all inclusion health populations (Box 2, Figure 2).

Figure 2

Download asset Open asset

Developing holistic approaches

Inclusion health populations face many challenges; therefore, the HBV agenda must not operate in a silo. Integrated infectious disease screening can be cost-effective and an efficient use of resources. An example is the World Health Organization’s ‘triple elimination initiative’ which encourages countries to simultaneously commit to elimination of mother-to-child transmission of HIV, syphilis and HBV (World Health Organization, 2022b). This approach has been demonstrated to reduce disease transmission rates, staff and patient time, and overall programme cost (Zhang et al., 2019).

Integrated infection screening is also recommended in migrants, and in most countries screening tests are offered following a risk assessment (European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, 2018). Screening is found to be cost-effective, feasible and acceptable, but migrants are a heterogenous group, and services should be culturally appropriate, and accommodate the possibility of fear and stigma surrounding screening and diagnosis (Seedat et al., 2018; Cinardo et al., 2022). In many countries, migrants will undergo pre-entry or port-of-entry screening, missing those who arrive through informal routes (Cinardo et al., 2022). Culturally sensitive outreach services are an important way to reach and screen inclusion health populations (Box 1).

Multi-morbidity is common, for example, incarcerated individuals with HBV have high rates of HIV, HCV and /or TB co-infection (Ahmadi Gharaei et al., 2021; do Nascimento et al., 2020; La Torre et al., 2007), and of substance use and severe mental illness (Kamarulzaman et al., 2016; Fazel and Danesh, 2002). Non-communicable diseases are also prevalent among inclusion health populations (Tweed et al., 2021) for example, PEH have a three-fold elevated risk of cardiovascular disease and cardiovascular mortality compared to non-homeless individuals (Table 2; Al Shakarchi et al., 2020). Moreover, people with co-existing exposures, for example incarceration and substance use, or serious mental illness and substance use, have worse outcomes (Tweed et al., 2021). Diabetes is associated with an increased risk of HBV-associated HCC (hazard ratio 1.36, 95% CI 1.23–1.49)(Campbell et al., 2021). The HBV inclusion health agenda must therefore take a ‘syndemic’ approach, namely to tackle viral hepatitis not as an isolated challenge but recognising its place amongst complex social, physical and mental health challenges and addressing the person as a whole (Mendenhall, 2017; Matthews et al., 2022b).

Prioritising patient and public involvement

HBV infection can result in stigma and discrimination, which is magnified when combined with the experiences of socially excluded groups (Matthews et al., 2022a). Sharing lived experiences builds rapport, trust and equality, helping promote advocacy, build peer support networks, navigate healthcare systems and promote diagnosis and treatment of blood borne infections (Paisi et al., 2022; Crone et al., 2022). There is a long history of peer-led approaches with successful outcomes in HIV, TB and HCV (Story et al., 2020; Øgård-Repål et al., 2023). For example, as part of the HepCare project, people with lived experience of HCV infection were upskilled to become equal members of the healthcare team, providing a cost-effective approach to enhancing diagnosis, linkage to care and treatment success (Ward et al., 2019; Surey et al., 2021; Surey et al., 2019). Importantly, a focus group involving people with lived experience ranked advocacy via peer-led services as the second most important intervention behind stable housing (Luchenski et al., 2018). The success and knowledge gained from this peer-led approach must now be translated to HBV.

Improving awareness, education, and advocacy

Qualitative research from Australia has identified lack of confidence of healthcare professionals and poor communication surrounding HBV (Wallace et al., 2011; Robotin et al., 2021). Sensitive communication around HBV is of heightened importance in populations who already experience discrimination and stigma, and is a particular consideration where certain subjects are culturally taboo (Condon et al., 2019). Engagement requires sensitivity to cultural nuances, including traditional and religious beliefs (Holmstrom, 2019, Carr et al., 2014). Training for healthcare professionals in trauma-informed care would benefit many inclusion health populations who are more likely to have a history of experiencing assault and torture (Emily, 2021). Lack of awareness is present in healthcare professionals as well as in at-risk populations (Cochrane et al., 2016; Bierhoff et al., 2021). A UK survey of primary care practitioners found many did not believe routine testing of HBV in migrants was necessary, and national guidelines were poorly followed (Evlampidou et al., 2016). Interventions to raise HBV awareness in different groups are paramount to inform action for inclusion health populations.

Representative research

Inclusion health populations are often seen as ‘hard to reach’ and may not be viewed as ideal research participants given the possibility of increased loss to follow up and co-morbid conditions. This is further exacerbated in low-resource settings, where there is higher HBV prevalence. There is a striking lack of inclusion health research within Africa, even among global reviews (Table 2). In order to be generalisable and equitable, HBV research needs to be representative of real-world populations and challenges, on a global scale. Performance of new biomarkers, for example hepatitis B core-related antigen, or clinical fibrosis scores, such as APRI and FIB-4, needs to be validated for clinical utility in these populations with overlapping risk factors, multi-morbidity and in varying global populations. While limited treatments currently exist for HBV infection, there is active research into improved treatment and curative therapies; for these to be relevant in populations most affected by HBV, clinical trials must recruit accordingly. Mixed-method approaches should be utilised to understand views and unmet needs of marginalised communities in relation to HBV. The exclusion of inclusion health populations from the current research agenda is likely to further exacerbate inequities when more effective treatments do become available.

1. 1. Adjei CA
   2. Stutterheim SE
   3. Naab F
   4. Ruiter RAC

   (2019) Barriers to chronic hepatitis B treatment and care in ghana: a qualitative study with people with hepatitis B and healthcare providers

   PLOS ONE 14:e0225830.

   https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225830

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
2. 1. Ahmadi Gharaei H
   2. Fararouei M
   3. Mirzazadeh A
   4. Sharifnia G
   5. Rohani-Rasaf M
   6. Bastam D
   7. Rahimi J
   8. Kouhestani M
   9. Rezaian S
   10. Dianatinasab M

   (2021) The global and regional prevalence of hepatitis C and B co-infections among prisoners living with HIV: a systematic review and meta-analysis

   Infectious Diseases of Poverty 10:93.

   https://doi.org/10.1186/s40249-021-00876-7

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
3. 1. Aldridge RW
   2. Story A
   3. Hwang SW
   4. Nordentoft M
   5. Luchenski SA
   6. Hartwell G
   7. Tweed EJ
   8. Lewer D
   9. Vittal Katikireddi S
   10. Hayward AC

   (2018) Morbidity and mortality in homeless individuals, prisoners, sex workers, and individuals with substance use disorders in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

   Lancet 391:241–250.

   https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31869-X

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
4. 1. Al Shakarchi NJ
   2. Evans H
   3. Luchenski SA
   4. Story A
   5. Banerjee A

   (2020) Cardiovascular disease in homeless versus housed individuals: a systematic review of observational and interventional studies

   Heart 106:1483–1488.

   https://doi.org/10.1136/heartjnl-2020-316706

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
5. 1. Arasteh K
   2. Des Jarlais DC
   3. Perlis TE

   (2008) Alcohol and HIV sexual risk behaviors among injection drug users

   Drug and Alcohol Dependence 95:54–61.

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.12.008

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
6. 1. Armitage AJ
   2. Cohen J
   3. Heys M
   4. Hardelid P
   5. Ward A
   6. Eisen S

   (2022) Description and evaluation of a pathway for unaccompanied asylum-seeking children

   Archives of Disease in Childhood 107:456–460.

   https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2021-322319

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
7. 1. Becker JN
   2. Foli KJ

   (2022) Health-seeking behaviours in the homeless population: a concept analysis

   Health & Social Care in the Community 30:e278–e286.

   https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13499

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
8. 1. Bierhoff M
   2. Hashmi AH
   3. Pateekhum C
   4. Jiraporncharoen W
   5. Wiwattanacharoen W
   6. Paw MK
   7. Nosten FH
   8. Rijken MJ
   9. Van Vugt M
   10. McGready R
   11. Angkurawaranon C

   (2021) A mixed-methods evaluation of hepatitis B knowledge, attitudes, and practices among migrant women in thailand

   BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 21:525.

   https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-03914-2

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
9. 1. Binswanger IA
   2. Stern MF
   3. Deyo RA
   4. Heagerty PJ
   5. Cheadle A
   6. Elmore JG
   7. Koepsell TD

   (2007) Release from prison -- a high risk of death for former inmates

   The New England Journal of Medicine 356:157–165.

   https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa064115

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
10. 1. Bitty-Anderson AM
    2. Ferré V
    3. Gbeasor-Komlanvi FA
    4. Tchankoni MK
    5. Sadio A
    6. Salou M
    7. Descamps D
    8. Dagnra CA
    9. Charpentier C
    10. Ekouevi DK
    11. Coffie PA

    (2021) Prevalence of hepatitis B and C among female sex workers in togo, west africa

    PLOS ONE 16:e0259891.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259891

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
11. 1. Brown R
    2. Goulder P
    3. Matthews PC

    (2022) Sexual dimorphism in chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection: evidence to inform elimination efforts

    Wellcome Open Research 7:32.

    https://doi.org/10.12688/wellcomeopenres.17601.2

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
12. 1. Campbell C
    2. Wang T
    3. McNaughton AL
    4. Barnes E
    5. Matthews PC

    (2021) Risk factors for the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) in chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis

    Journal of Viral Hepatitis 28:493–507.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/jvh.13452

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
13. 1. Carr SM
    2. Lhussier M
    3. Forster N
    4. Goodall D
    5. Geddes L
    6. Pennington M
    7. Bancroft A
    8. Adams J
    9. Michie S

    (2014) Outreach programmes for health improvement of traveller communities: a synthesis of evidence

    Public Health Research 2:1–168.

    https://doi.org/10.3310/phr02030

    • Google Scholar
14. Website

    1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

    (2022) Hepatitis B Questions and Answers for Health Professionals

    Accessed November 18, 2022.

    https://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/hbv/hbvfaq.htm
15. Website

    1. Chamie J

    (2017) As Cities Grow, So Do the Numbers of Homeless

    Yale University Macmillan Center. Accessed August 22, 2020.

    https://archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/cities-grow-so-do-numbers-homeless
16. 1. Charania NA
    2. Gaze N
    3. Kung JY
    4. Brooks S

    (2020) Interventions to reduce the burden of vaccine-preventable diseases among migrants and refugees worldwide: a scoping review of published literature, 2006-2018

    Vaccine 38:7217–7225.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.09.054

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
17. 1. Cinardo P
    2. Farrant O
    3. Gunn K
    4. Ward A
    5. Eisen S
    6. Longley N

    (2022) Screening for neglected tropical diseases and other infections in refugee and asylum-seeker populations in the united kingdom

    Therapeutic Advances in Infectious Disease 9:20499361221116680.

    https://doi.org/10.1177/20499361221116680

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
18. 1. Cochrane A
    2. Collins P
    3. Horwood JP

    (2016) Barriers and opportunities for hepatitis B testing and contact tracing in a UK somali population: a qualitative study

    European Journal of Public Health 26:389–395.

    https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckv236

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
19. 1. Colucci G
    2. Uceda Renteria S
    3. Lunghi G
    4. Ceriotti F
    5. Sguazzini E
    6. Spalenza S
    7. Regazzo C
    8. Lampertico P
    9. Colombo M

    (2022) Italian migrants study: an HCV and HBV micro-elimination pilot project

    Clinics and Research in Hepatology and Gastroenterology 46:101852.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinre.2021.101852

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
20. 1. Condon L
    2. Bedford H
    3. Ireland L
    4. Kerr S
    5. Mytton J
    6. Richardson Z
    7. Jackson C

    (2019) Engaging gypsy, roma, and traveller communities in research: maximizing opportunities and overcoming challenges

    Qualitative Health Research 29:1324–1333.

    https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732318813558

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
21. 1. Cooke GS
    2. Andrieux-Meyer I
    3. Applegate TL
    4. Atun R
    5. Burry JR
    6. Cheinquer H
    7. Dusheiko G
    8. Feld JJ
    9. Gore C
    10. Griswold MG
    11. Hamid S
    12. Hellard ME
    13. Hou J
    14. Howell J
    15. Jia J
    16. Kravchenko N
    17. Lazarus JV
    18. Lemoine M
    19. Lesi OA
    20. Maistat L
    21. McMahon BJ
    22. Razavi H
    23. Roberts T
    24. Simmons B
    25. Sonderup MW
    26. Spearman CW
    27. Taylor BE
    28. Thomas DL
    29. Waked I
    30. Ward JW
    31. Wiktor SZ
    32. Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology Commissioners

    (2019) Accelerating the elimination of viral hepatitis: a lancet gastroenterology & hepatology commission

    The Lancet. Gastroenterology & Hepatology 4:135–184.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(18)30270-X

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
22. 1. Costa M
    2. Barré T
    3. Coste M
    4. Yaya I
    5. Berenger C
    6. Tanti M
    7. Cutarella C
    8. Mora M
    9. Poloméni P
    10. Maynard M
    11. Teuma D
    12. Bazin M
    13. Maradan G
    14. Roux P
    15. Carrieri PM

    (2020) Screening and care for alcohol use disorder in france: expectations, barriers and levers using a mixed-methods approach

    BMC Public Health 20:358.

    https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08495-x

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
23. Report

    1. Council of Europe

    (2020)

    Council of Europe Strategic Action Plan for Roma and Traveller Inclusion (2020 - 2025)

    Council of Europe.

    • Google Scholar
24. 1. Crone B
    2. Metraux S
    3. Sbrocco T

    (2022) Health service access among homeless veterans: health access challenges faced by homeless African American veterans

    Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities 9:1828–1844.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-021-01119-z

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
25. 1. Dana D
    2. Zary N
    3. Peyman A
    4. Behrooz A

    (2013) Risk prison and hepatitis B virus infection among inmates with history of drug injection in isfahan, iran

    TheScientificWorldJournal 2013:735761.

    https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/735761

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
26. 1. Davies J
    2. Smith EL
    3. Littlejohn M
    4. Edwards R
    5. Sozzi V
    6. Jackson K
    7. Mcguire K
    8. Binks P
    9. Cowie BC
    10. Locarnini S
    11. Davis JS
    12. Tong SYC

    (2019) Towards genotype-specific care for chronic hepatitis B: the first 6 years follow up from the CHARM cohort study

    Open Forum Infectious Diseases 6:fz469.

    https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofz469

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
27. 1. de Villiers MJ
    2. Nayagam S
    3. Hallett TB

    (2021) The impact of the timely birth dose vaccine on the global elimination of hepatitis B

    Nature Communications 12:6223.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26475-6

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
28. 1. Degenhardt L
    2. Peacock A
    3. Colledge S
    4. Leung J
    5. Grebely J
    6. Vickerman P
    7. Stone J
    8. Cunningham EB
    9. Trickey A
    10. Dumchev K
    11. Lynskey M
    12. Griffiths P
    13. Mattick RP
    14. Hickman M
    15. Larney S

    (2017) Global prevalence of injecting drug use and sociodemographic characteristics and prevalence of HIV, HBV, and HCV in people who inject drugs: a multistage systematic review

    The Lancet. Global Health 5:e1192–e1207.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(17)30375-3

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
29. 1. Dolan K
    2. Wirtz AL
    3. Moazen B
    4. Ndeffo-Mbah M
    5. Galvani A
    6. Kinner SA
    7. Courtney R
    8. McKee M
    9. Amon JJ
    10. Maher L
    11. Hellard M
    12. Beyrer C
    13. Altice FL

    (2016) Global burden of HIV, viral hepatitis, and tuberculosis in prisoners and detainees

    Lancet 388:1089–1102.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30466-4

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
30. 1. do Nascimento CT
    2. Pena DZ
    3. Giuffrida R
    4. Bandeira Monteiro FN
    5. da Silva FA
    6. Flores EF
    7. Prestes-Carneiro LE

    (2020) Prevalence and epidemiological characteristics of inmates diagnosed with infectious diseases living in a region with a high number of prisons in São Paulo state, Brazil

    BMJ Open 10:e037045.

    https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037045

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
31. 1. Dos Ramos Farías MS
    2. Garcia MN
    3. Reynaga E
    4. Romero M
    5. Vaulet MLG
    6. Fermepín MR
    7. Toscano MF
    8. Rey J
    9. Marone R
    10. Squiquera L
    11. González JV
    12. Basiletti J
    13. Picconi MA
    14. Pando MA
    15. Avila MM

    (2011) First report on sexually transmitted infections among trans (male to female transvestites, transsexuals, or transgender) and male sex workers in argentina: high HIV, HPV, HBV, and syphilis prevalence

    International Journal of Infectious Diseases 15:e635–e640.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2011.05.007

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
32. 1. Duby Z
    2. Nkosi B
    3. Scheibe A
    4. Brown B
    5. Bekker LG

    (2018) “ Scared of going to the clinic”: contextualising healthcare access for men who have sex with men, female sex workers and people who use drugs in two south african cities

    Southern African Journal of HIV Medicine 19:701.

    https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhivmed.v19i1.701

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
33. 1. Eborall H
    2. Wobi F
    3. Ellis K
    4. Willars J
    5. Abubakar I
    6. Griffiths C
    7. Pareek M

    (2020) Integrated screening of migrants for multiple infectious diseases: qualitative study of a city-wide programme

    EClinicalMedicine 21:100315.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100315

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
34. 1. Einsiedel L
    2. Fernandes L
    3. Joseph S
    4. Brown A
    5. Woodman RJ

    (2013) Non-Communicable diseases, infection and survival in a retrospective cohort of Indigenous and non-Indigenous adults in central Australia

    BMJ Open 3:e003070.

    https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003070

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
35. Book

    1. Emily B

    (2021) Clinics for migrant and refugee children: psychosocial and organizational considerations

    In: Esmaili E, editors. Child Refugee and Migrant Health: A Manual for Health Professionals. Switzerland: Springer Nature. pp. 87–96.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-74906-4_10

    • Google Scholar
36. Website

    1. Equality and Human Rights Commission

    (2017) Gypsies and Travellers: simple solutions for living together

    Accessed April 13, 2022.

    https://www.equalityhumanrights.com/en/gypsies-and-travellers-simple-solutions-living-together
37. Report

    1. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control

    (2016)

    Epidemiological assessment of hepatitis B and C among migrants in the EU/EEA

    Stockholm.

    • Google Scholar
38. Website

    1. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control

    (2018) Public health guidance on screening and vaccination for infectious diseases in newly arrived migrants within the EU/EEA

    Accessed November 18, 2022.

    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/public-health-guidance-screening-and-vaccination-infectious-diseases-newly
39. Website

    1. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control

    (2021) Hepatitis B and C testing in the EU/EEA: progress in reaching the elimination targets

    Accessed November 18, 2022.

    https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/hepatitis-b-and-c-testing-eueea-progress-reaching-elimination-targets
40. 1. Evlampidou I
    2. Hickman M
    3. Irish C
    4. Young N
    5. Oliver I
    6. Gillett S
    7. Cochrane A

    (2016) Low hepatitis B testing among migrants: a cross-sectional study in a UK city

    The British Journal of General Practice 66:e382–e391.

    https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp16X684817

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
41. Website

    1. Fair H
    2. Walmsley R

    (2021) Prison Populations Continue To Rise In Many Parts Of The World, New Report Published By The Institute For Crime & Justice Policy Research Shows

    Accessed May 25, 2022.

    https://www.icpr.org.uk/news-events/2021/prison-populations-continue-rise-many-parts-world-new-report-published-institute#:~:text=According%20to%20published%20prison%20population,in%20North%20Korea%20are%20included
42. 1. Farrant O
    2. Eisen S
    3. van Tulleken C
    4. Ward A
    5. Longley N

    (2022) Why asylum seekers deserve better healthcare, and how we can give it to them

    BMJ 376:3069.

    https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n3069

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
43. 1. Fazel S
    2. Danesh J

    (2002) Serious mental disorder in 23000 prisoners: a systematic review of 62 surveys

    Lancet 359:545–550.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)07740-1

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
44. 1. Freeland C
    2. Racho R
    3. Kamischke M
    4. Moraras K
    5. Wang E
    6. Cohen C
    7. Kendrick S

    (2021) Health-related quality of life for adults living with hepatitis B in the united states: a qualitative assessment

    Journal of Patient-Reported Outcomes 5:121.

    https://doi.org/10.1186/s41687-021-00398-8

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
45. 1. Genberg BL
    2. Astemborski J
    3. Vlahov D
    4. Kirk GD
    5. Mehta SH

    (2015) Incarceration and injection drug use in baltimore, maryland

    Addiction 110:1152–1159.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/add.12938

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
46. 1. Gitto S
    2. Micco L
    3. Conti F
    4. Andreone P
    5. Bernardi M

    (2009) Alcohol and viral hepatitis: a mini-review

    Digestive and Liver Disease 41:67–70.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dld.2008.05.009

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
47. 1. Graber-Stiehl I

    (2018) The silent epidemic killing more people than HIV, malaria or TB

    Nature 564:24–26.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-018-07592-7

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
48. 1. Gregory A
    2. Vedio A
    3. Stone B
    4. Green S
    5. Bronsdon C

    (2014) Targeted testing in primary care demonstrates high prevalence of hepatitis B infection within the slovak-roma population in sheffield, UK

    Journal of Viral Hepatitis 21:e138–e139.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/jvh.12287

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
49. 1. Harawa NT
    2. Sweat J
    3. George S
    4. Sylla M

    (2010) Sex and condom use in a large jail unit for men who have sex with men (MSM) and male-to-female transgenders

    Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved 21:1071–1087.

    https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.0.0349

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
50. 1. Hla TK
    2. Bukulatjpi SM
    3. Binks P
    4. Gurruwiwi GG
    5. Dhurrkay RG
    6. Davies J

    (2020) A “one stop liver shop” approach improves the cascade-of-care for aboriginal and torres strait islander australians living with chronic hepatitis B in the northern territory of australia: results of A novel care delivery model

    International Journal for Equity in Health 19:64.

    https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-020-01180-w

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
51. Website

    1. Holmstrom R

    (2019) Understanding health needs of the Traveller community

    Accessed April 13, 2022.

    https://www.rcplondon.ac.uk/news/understanding-health-needs-traveller-community
52. 1. Howell J
    2. Pedrana A
    3. Cowie BC
    4. Doyle J
    5. Getahun A
    6. Ward J
    7. Gane E
    8. Cunningham C
    9. Wallace J
    10. Lee A
    11. Malani J
    12. Thompson A
    13. Hellard ME

    (2019) Aiming for the elimination of viral hepatitis in Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific islands and territories: where are we now and barriers to meeting World Health organization targets by 2030

    Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology 34:40–48.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/jgh.14457

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
53. 1. Hutton DW
    2. Toy M
    3. Salomon JA
    4. Conners EE
    5. Nelson NP
    6. Harris AM
    7. So S

    (2022) Cost-Effectiveness of hepatitis B testing and vaccination of adults seeking care for sexually transmitted infections

    Sexually Transmitted Diseases 49:517–525.

    https://doi.org/10.1097/OLQ.0000000000001632

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
54. Report

    1. International organisation for migration

    (2021)

    World migration report 2022

    World Migration Repeort Series.

    • Google Scholar
55. 1. Jeal N
    2. Salisbury C

    (2004)

    Self-Reported experiences of health services among female street-based prostitutes: a cross-sectional survey

    The British Journal of General Practice 54:515–519.

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
56. 1. Kamarulzaman A
    2. Reid SE
    3. Schwitters A
    4. Wiessing L
    5. El-Bassel N
    6. Dolan K
    7. Moazen B
    8. Wirtz AL
    9. Verster A
    10. Altice FL

    (2016) Prevention of transmission of HIV, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus, and tuberculosis in prisoners

    Lancet 388:1115–1126.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30769-3

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
57. 1. Kim JU
    2. Ingiliz P
    3. Shimakawa Y
    4. Lemoine M

    (2021) Improving care of migrants is key for viral hepatitis elimination in Europe

    Bulletin of the World Health Organization 99:280–286.

    https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.20.260919

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
58. 1. Kowo MP
    2. Andoulo FA
    3. Sizimboue DT
    4. Ndam AWN
    5. Ngek LT
    6. Kouanfack C
    7. Leundji H
    8. Djanteng R
    9. Ondo BE
    10. Torimiro JN
    11. Ndam ECN
    12. Njoya O

    (2021) Seroprevalence of hepatitis B and associated factors among inmates: a cross sectional study in the douala new bell prison, cameroon

    The Pan African Medical Journal 38:355.

    https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2021.38.355.20386

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
59. 1. La Torre G
    2. Miele L
    3. Chiaradia G
    4. Mannocci A
    5. Reali M
    6. Gasbarrini G
    7. De Vito E
    8. Grieco A
    9. Ricciardi W

    (2007) Socio-Demographic determinants of coinfections by HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C viruses in central Italian prisoners

    BMC Infectious Diseases 7:100.

    https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-7-100

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
60. Website

    1. Leeds gate

    (2022) Leeds Gypsy & Traveller Exchange

    Accessed April 13, 2022.

    https://www.leedsgate.co.uk/about-us
61. 1. Lemoine M
    2. Eholié S
    3. Lacombe K

    (2015) Reducing the neglected burden of viral hepatitis in Africa: strategies for a global approach

    Journal of Hepatology 62:469–476.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhep.2014.10.008

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
62. 1. Leuridan E
    2. Wouters K
    3. Stalpaert M
    4. Van Damme P

    (2005) Male sex workers in Antwerp, Belgium: a descriptive study

    International Journal of STD & AIDS 16:744–748.

    https://doi.org/10.1258/095646205774763072

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
63. 1. Li Z-M
    2. Kong C-Y
    3. Zhang S-L
    4. Han B
    5. Zhang Z-Y
    6. Wang L-S

    (2019) Alcohol and HBV synergistically promote hepatic steatosis

    Annals of Hepatology 18:913–917.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aohep.2019.04.013

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
64. 1. Luchenski S
    2. Maguire N
    3. Aldridge RW
    4. Hayward A
    5. Story A
    6. Perri P
    7. Withers J
    8. Clint S
    9. Fitzpatrick S
    10. Hewett N

    (2018) What works in inclusion health: overview of effective interventions for marginalised and excluded populations

    Lancet 391:266–280.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31959-1

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
65. 1. Ly TDA
    2. Castaneda S
    3. Hoang VT
    4. Dao TL
    5. Gautret P

    (2021a) Vaccine-preventable diseases other than tuberculosis, and homelessness: a scoping review of the published literature, 1980 to 2020

    Vaccine 39:1205–1224.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.01.035

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
66. 1. Ly TDA
    2. Hoang VT
    3. Louni M
    4. Dao TL
    5. Badiaga S
    6. Tissot-Dupont H
    7. Brouqui P
    8. Colson P
    9. Gautret P

    (2021b) Epidemiological serosurvey and molecular characterization of sexually transmitted infections among 1890 sheltered homeless people in marseille: cross-sectional one day-surveys (2000-2015)

    The Journal of Infection 82:60–66.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.11.026

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
67. 1. Macejova Z
    2. Kristian P
    3. Janicko M
    4. Halanova M
    5. Drazilova S
    6. Antolova D
    7. Marekova M
    8. Pella D
    9. Madarasova-Geckova A
    10. Jarcuska P
    11. Team H

    (2020) The Roma population living in segregated settlements in eastern Slovakia has a higher prevalence of metabolic syndrome, kidney disease, viral hepatitis B and E, and some parasitic diseases compared to the majority population

    International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17:3112.

    https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093112

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
68. 1. Magri MC
    2. Nunes AK
    3. Dantas BP
    4. Manchiero C
    5. Prata TVG
    6. Alves GM
    7. Tengan FM

    (2020) Meta-analysis of the prevalence of HBV infection among alcohol users worldwide

    Alcohol and Alcoholism 55:136–143.

    https://doi.org/10.1093/alcalc/agz102

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
69. 1. Mak R
    2. Traen A
    3. Claeyssens M
    4. Van Renterghem L
    5. Leroux-Roels G
    6. Van Damme P

    (2003) Hepatitis B vaccination for sex workers: do outreach programmes perform better?

    Sexually Transmitted Infections 79:157–159.

    https://doi.org/10.1136/sti.79.2.157

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
70. 1. Maponga TG
    2. McNaughton AL
    3. van Schalkwyk M
    4. Hugo S
    5. Nwankwo C
    6. Taljaard J
    7. Mokaya J
    8. Smith DA
    9. van Vuuren C
    10. Goedhals D
    11. Gabriel S
    12. Andersson MI
    13. Preiser W
    14. van Rensburg C
    15. Matthews PC

    (2020) Treatment advantage in HBV/HIV coinfection compared to HBV monoinfection in a South African cohort

    The Journal of Infection 81:121–130.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.04.037

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
71. 1. Matos MA
    2. França DD
    3. Carneiro M
    4. Martins RMB
    5. Kerr L
    6. Caetano KAA
    7. Pinheiro RS
    8. Araújo LA
    9. Mota RMS
    10. Matos MAD
    11. Motta-Castro ARC
    12. Teles SA

    (2017) Viral hepatitis in female sex workers using the respondent-driven sampling

    Revista de Saude Publica 51:65.

    https://doi.org/10.1590/S1518-8787.2017051006540

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
72. 1. Matthews PC
    2. Jack K
    3. Wang S
    4. Abbott J
    5. Bryce K
    6. Cheng B
    7. Ghosh I
    8. Story A
    9. Chen J
    10. Munoz C
    11. Bell J
    12. Riddell S
    13. Goldring A
    14. Goddard C
    15. Moraras K
    16. Cohen C
    17. Brown K
    18. Lazarus JV
    19. Elsharkawy AM

    (2022a) A call for advocacy and patient voice to eliminate hepatitis B virus infection

    The Lancet. Gastroenterology & Hepatology 7:282–285.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-1253(21)00475-1

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
73. 1. Matthews PC
    2. Maponga T
    3. Ghosh I
    4. Lemoine M
    5. Ocama P
    6. Abubakar I
    7. Story A
    8. Flanagan S
    9. Ochodo E

    (2022b) Hepatitis B virus: infection, liver disease, carcinogen or syndemic threat? remodelling the clinical and public health response

    PLOS Global Public Health 2:e0001359.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0001359

    • Google Scholar
74. 1. Mazzitelli M
    2. Greco G
    3. Serapide F
    4. Scaglione V
    5. Morrone H
    6. Marascio N
    7. Giancotti A
    8. Liberto M
    9. Matera G
    10. Trecarichi E
    11. Torti C

    (2021)

    Outcome of HBV screening and vaccination in a migrant population in southern Italy

    Le Infezioni in Medicina 29:236–241.

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
75. 1. Mc Grath-Lone L
    2. Marsh K
    3. Hughes G
    4. Ward H

    (2014) The sexual health of female sex workers compared with other women in England: analysis of cross-sectional data from genitourinary medicine clinics

    Sexually Transmitted Infections 90:344–350.

    https://doi.org/10.1136/sextrans-2013-051381

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
76. 1. McFadden A
    2. Siebelt L
    3. Gavine A
    4. Atkin K
    5. Bell K
    6. Innes N
    7. Jones H
    8. Jackson C
    9. Haggi H
    10. MacGillivray S

    (2018) Gypsy, Roma and traveller access to and engagement with health services: a systematic review

    European Journal of Public Health 28:74–81.

    https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckx226

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
77. 1. McNaughton AL
    2. Lourenço J
    3. Hattingh L
    4. Adland E
    5. Daniels S
    6. Van Zyl A
    7. Akiror CS
    8. Wareing S
    9. Jeffery K
    10. Ansari MA
    11. Klenerman P
    12. Goulder PJR
    13. Gupta S
    14. Jooste P
    15. Matthews PC

    (2019) Hbv vaccination and PMTCT as elimination tools in the presence of HIV: insights from a clinical cohort and dynamic model

    BMC Medicine 17:43.

    https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-019-1269-x

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
78. 1. McNaughton AL
    2. Lemoine M
    3. van Rensburg C
    4. Matthews PC

    (2021) Extending treatment eligibility for chronic hepatitis B virus infection

    Nature Reviews. Gastroenterology & Hepatology 18:146–147.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-020-00398-x

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
79. 1. Mendenhall E

    (2017) Syndemics: a new path for global health research

    Lancet 389:889–891.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(17)30602-5

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
80. 1. Miranda NTGP
    2. de Souza RL
    3. Monteiro JC
    4. Costa IB
    5. Siravenha LQ
    6. da Luz ALB
    7. de Almeida NCC
    8. Oliveira-Filho AB
    9. Laurentino RV
    10. Machado LFA

    (2021) Seroprevalence of HBV and HCV in female sex workers from four cities in the state of pará, Northern Brazil

    Journal of Medical Virology 93:3730–3737.

    https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26759

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
81. 1. Moazen B
    2. Saeedi Moghaddam S
    3. Silbernagl MA
    4. Lotfizadeh M
    5. Bosworth RJ
    6. Alammehrjerdi Z
    7. Kinner SA
    8. Wirtz AL
    9. Bärnighausen TW
    10. Stöver HJ
    11. Dolan KA

    (2018) Prevalence of drug injection, sexual activity, tattooing, and piercing among prison inmates

    Epidemiologic Reviews 40:58–69.

    https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxy002

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
82. Conference

    1. Mofokeng M

    (2021)

    Barriers to recruitment of adults with HBV for participation in clinical research studies

    Conference on Liver Disease in Africa. Virtual.

    • Google Scholar
83. 1. Motavalli D
    2. Taylor JL
    3. Childs E
    4. Valente PK
    5. Salhaney P
    6. Olson J
    7. Biancarelli DL
    8. Edeza A
    9. Earlywine JJ
    10. Marshall BDL
    11. Drainoni M-L
    12. Mimiaga MJ
    13. Biello KB
    14. Bazzi AR

    (2021) “Health is on the back burner:” multilevel barriers and facilitators to primary care among people who inject drugs

    Journal of General Internal Medicine 36:129–137.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-020-06201-6

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
84. 1. Nakitanda AO
    2. Montanari L
    3. Tavoschi L
    4. Mozalevskis A
    5. Duffell E

    (2021) Hepatitis B virus infection in EU/EEA and united kingdom prisons: a descriptive analysis

    Epidemiology and Infection 149:e59.

    https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268821000169

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
85. Website

    1. National institutes of health

    (2022) Estimates of Funding for Various Research, Condition, and Disease Categories

    Accessed November 24, 2022.

    https://report.nih.gov/funding/categorical-spending
86. 1. Nayagam S
    2. Conteh L
    3. Sicuri E
    4. Shimakawa Y
    5. Suso P
    6. Tamba S
    7. Njie R
    8. Njai H
    9. Lemoine M
    10. Hallett TB
    11. Thursz M

    (2016) Cost-effectiveness of community-based screening and treatment for chronic hepatitis B in the gambia: an economic modelling analysis

    The Lancet. Global Health 4:e568–e578.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30101-2

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
87. 1. Nebbia G
    2. Ruf M
    3. Hunter L
    4. Balasegaram S
    5. Wong T
    6. Kulasegaram R
    7. Surey J
    8. Khan Z
    9. Williams J
    10. Karo B
    11. Snell L
    12. Flower B
    13. Evans H
    14. Douthwaite S

    (2022) VirA+EmiC project: evaluating real-world effectiveness and sustainability of integrated routine opportunistic hepatitis B and C testing in a large urban emergency department

    Journal of Viral Hepatitis 29:559–568.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/jvh.13676

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
88. 1. O’Carroll A
    2. Irving N
    3. O’Neill J
    4. Flanagan E

    (2017) A review of a GP registrar-run mobile health clinic for homeless people

    Irish Journal of Medical Science 186:541–546.

    https://doi.org/10.1007/s11845-016-1527-2

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
89. 1. Øgård-Repål A
    2. Berg RC
    3. Fossum M

    (2023) Peer support for people living with HIV: A scoping review

    Health Promotion Practice 24:172–190.

    https://doi.org/10.1177/15248399211049824

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
90. 1. O’Hara GA
    2. McNaughton AL
    3. Maponga T
    4. Jooste P
    5. Ocama P
    6. Chilengi R
    7. Mokaya J
    8. Liyayi MI
    9. Wachira T
    10. Gikungi DM
    11. Burbridge L
    12. O’Donnell D
    13. Akiror CS
    14. Sloan D
    15. Torimiro J
    16. Yindom LM
    17. Walton R
    18. Andersson M
    19. Marsh K
    20. Newton R
    21. Matthews PC

    (2017) Hepatitis B virus infection as a neglected tropical disease

    PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 11:e0005842.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0005842

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
91. 1. O’Keefe D
    2. Stoové M
    3. Doyle J
    4. Dietze P
    5. Hellard M

    (2017) Injecting drug use in low and middle-income countries: opportunities to improve care and prevent harm

    Journal of Viral Hepatitis 24:714–724.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/jvh.12741

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
92. 1. Osiowy C
    2. Simons BC
    3. Rempel JD

    (2013) Distribution of viral hepatitis in Indigenous populations of North America and the Circumpolar Arctic

    Antiviral Therapy 18:467–473.

    https://doi.org/10.3851/IMP2597

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
93. 1. Paisi M
    2. Crombag N
    3. Burns L
    4. Bogaerts A
    5. Withers L
    6. Bates L
    7. Crowley D
    8. Witton R
    9. Shawe J

    (2022) Barriers and facilitators to hepatitis C screening and treatment for people with lived experience of homelessness: a mixed-methods systematic review

    Health Expectations 25:48–60.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/hex.13400

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
94. 1. Palmateer NE
    2. Goldberg DJ
    3. Munro A
    4. Taylor A
    5. Yeung A
    6. Wallace LA
    7. Mitchell A
    8. Shepherd SJ
    9. Gunson RN
    10. Aitken C
    11. Hutchinson SJ

    (2018) Association between universal hepatitis B prison vaccination, vaccine uptake and hepatitis B infection among people who inject drugs

    Addiction 113:80–90.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13944

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
95. 1. Picchio CA
    2. Nomah DK
    3. Araujo SG
    4. Rando-Segura A
    5. Fernández E
    6. Buti M
    7. Rodríguez-Tajes S
    8. Lens S
    9. Rodríguez-Frías F
    10. Lazarus JV

    (2021) A novel model of care for simplified testing of HBV in african communities during the COVID-19 pandemic in spain

    Scientific Reports 11:17063.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96350-3

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
96. 1. Plackett B

    (2022) Why hepatitis B hits Aboriginal Australians especially hard

    Nature 603:S62–S63.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00820-1

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
97. 1. Pley CM
    2. McNaughton AL
    3. Matthews PC
    4. Lourenço J

    (2021) The global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection

    BMJ Global Health 6:e004275.

    https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004275

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
98. 1. Prestileo T
    2. Di Marco V
    3. Dino O
    4. Sanfilippo A
    5. Tutone M
    6. Milesi M
    7. Di Marco L
    8. Picchio CA
    9. Craxì A
    10. Lazarus JV
    11. Immigrant Take Care Advocacy team

    (2022) Effectiveness of a screening program for HBV, HCV, and HIV infections in african migrants to sicily

    Digestive and Liver Disease 54:800–804.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dld.2021.08.024

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
99. 1. Qama A
    2. Allard N
    3. Cowie B
    4. Davis JS
    5. Davies J

    (2021) Hepatitis B in the Northern Territory: insights into the changing epidemiology of an ancient condition

    Internal Medicine Journal 51:910–922.

    https://doi.org/10.1111/imj.15069

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
100. 1. Rashti R
     2. Sharafi H
     3. Alavian SM
     4. Moradi Y
     5. Mohamadi Bolbanabad A
     6. Moradi G

     (2020) Systematic review and meta-analysis of global prevalence of hbsag and HIV and HCV antibodies among people who inject drugs and female sex workers

     Pathogens 9:432.

     https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9060432

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
101. 1. Robotin MC
     2. George J

     (2014) Community-Based hepatitis B screening: what works?

     Hepatology International 8:478–492.

     https://doi.org/10.1007/s12072-014-9562-4

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
102. 1. Robotin MC
     2. Wallace J
     3. Gallego G
     4. George J

     (2021) Hepatitis B and liver cancer: community awareness, knowledge and beliefs of middle eastern migrants in sydney, australia

     International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18:8534.

     https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168534

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
103. Website

     1. Royal College of Physicians

     (2022) Inclusion health: Designing services

     Accessed May 18, 2022.

     https://www.rcpmedicalcare.org.uk/designing-services/themes/inclusion-health
104. 1. Russell NK
     2. Nazar K
     3. Del Pino S
     4. Alonso Gonzalez M
     5. Díaz Bermúdez XP
     6. Ravasi G

     (2019) HIV, syphilis, and viral hepatitis among latin american indigenous peoples and afro-descendants: a systematic review

     Revista Panamericana de Salud Publica = Pan American Journal of Public Health 43:e17.

     https://doi.org/10.26633/RPSP.2019.17

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
105. 1. Scheibe A
     2. Young K
     3. Versfeld A
     4. Spearman CW
     5. Sonderup MW
     6. Prabdial-Sing N
     7. Puren A
     8. Hausler H

     (2020) Hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV prevalence and related sexual and substance use risk practices among key populations who access HIV prevention, treatment and related services in south africa: findings from a seven-city cross-sectional survey (2017)

     BMC Infectious Diseases 20:655.

     https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-020-05359-y

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
106. 1. Schuelter-Trevisol F
     2. Custódio G
     3. Silva ACB
     4. Oliveira MB
     5. Wolfart A
     6. Trevisol DJ

     (2013) Hiv, hepatitis B and C, and syphilis prevalence and coinfection among sex workers in southern brazil

     Revista Da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 46:493–497.

     https://doi.org/10.1590/0037-8682-1364-2013

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
107. 1. Seedat F
     2. Hargreaves S
     3. Nellums LB
     4. Ouyang J
     5. Brown M
     6. Friedland JS

     (2018) How effective are approaches to migrant screening for infectious diseases in Europe? A systematic review

     The Lancet. Infectious Diseases 18:e259–e271.

     https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30117-8

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
108. Report

     1. Shepherd-Banigan M

     (2021)

     VA evidence-based synthesis program reports Primary Care Engagement Among Veterans with Experiences of Homelessness and Serious Mental Illness: An Evidence Map

     Department of Veterans Affairs.

     • Google Scholar
109. 1. Siersbaek R
     2. Ford JA
     3. Burke S
     4. Ní Cheallaigh C
     5. Thomas S

     (2021) Contexts and mechanisms that promote access to healthcare for populations experiencing homelessness: a realist review

     BMJ Open 11:e043091.

     https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-043091

     • Google Scholar
110. 1. Story A
     2. Garber E
     3. Aldridge RW
     4. Smith CM
     5. Hall J
     6. Ferenando G
     7. Possas L
     8. Hemming S
     9. Wurie F
     10. Luchenski S
     11. Abubakar I
     12. McHugh TD
     13. White PJ
     14. Watson JM
     15. Lipman M
     16. Garfein R
     17. Hayward AC

     (2020) Management and control of tuberculosis control in socially complex groups: a research programme including three rcts

     Programme Grants for Applied Research 8:1–76.

     https://doi.org/10.3310/pgfar08090

     • Google Scholar
111. 1. Su S
     2. Wong WC
     3. Zou Z
     4. Cheng DD
     5. Ong JJ
     6. Chan P
     7. Ji F
     8. Yuen M-F
     9. Zhuang G
     10. Seto W-K
     11. Zhang L

     (2022) Cost-Effectiveness of universal screening for chronic hepatitis B virus infection in China: an economic evaluation

     The Lancet. Global Health 10:e278–e287.

     https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(21)00517-9

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
112. 1. Surey J
     2. Menezes D
     3. Francis M
     4. Gibbons J
     5. Sultan B
     6. Miah A
     7. Abubakar I
     8. Story A

     (2019) From peer-based to peer-led: redefining the role of peers across the hepatitis C care pathway: hepcare Europe

     The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 74:v17–v23.

     https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkz452

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
113. 1. Surey J
     2. Francis M
     3. Gibbons J
     4. Leonard M
     5. Abubakar I
     6. Story A
     7. MacLellan J

     (2021) Practising critical resilience as an advanced peer support worker in london: a qualitative evaluation of a peer-led hepatitis C intervention amongst people experiencing homelessness who inject drugs

     The International Journal on Drug Policy 91:103089.

     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.103089

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
114. 1. Tasa J
     2. Holmberg V
     3. Sainio S
     4. Kankkunen P
     5. Vehviläinen-Julkunen K

     (2021) Maternal health care utilization and the obstetric outcomes of undocumented women in finland - a retrospective register-based study

     BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 21:191.

     https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-021-03642-7

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
115. 1. Taylor JEB
     2. Surey J
     3. MacLellan J
     4. Francis M
     5. Abubakar I
     6. Stagg HR

     (2019) Hepatitis B vaccination uptake in hard-to-reach populations in london: a cross-sectional study

     BMC Infectious Diseases 19:372.

     https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-019-3926-2

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
116. 1. Todd CS
     2. Nasir A
     3. Stanekzai MR
     4. Bautista CT
     5. Botros BA
     6. Scott PT
     7. Strathdee SA
     8. Tjaden J

     (2010) Hiv, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C prevalence and associated risk behaviors among female sex workers in three afghan cities

     AIDS 24 Suppl 2:S69–S75.

     https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000386736.25296.8d

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
117. 1. Tordrup D
     2. Hutin Y
     3. Stenberg K
     4. Lauer JA
     5. Hutton DW
     6. Toy M
     7. Scott N
     8. Chhatwal J
     9. Ball A

     (2020) Cost-Effectiveness of testing and treatment for hepatitis B virus and hepatitis C virus infections: an analysis by scenarios, regions, and income

     Value in Health 23:1552–1560.

     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2020.06.015

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
118. 1. Toy M
     2. Hutton D
     3. Harris AM
     4. Nelson N
     5. Salomon JA
     6. So S

     (2022) Cost-Effectiveness of 1-time universal screening for chronic hepatitis B infection in adults in the United States

     Clinical Infectious Diseases 74:210–217.

     https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciab405

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
119. 1. Tweed EJ
     2. Thomson RM
     3. Lewer D
     4. Sumpter C
     5. Kirolos A
     6. Southworth PM
     7. Purba AK
     8. Aldridge RW
     9. Hayward A
     10. Story A
     11. Hwang SW
     12. Katikireddi SV

     (2021) Health of people experiencing co-occurring homelessness, imprisonment, substance use, sex work and/or severe mental illness in high-income countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis

     Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 75:1010–1018.

     https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2020-215975

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
120. Report

     1. United Way Mumbai

     (2017)

     Knowledge, attitude and practices of commercial sex workers towards hepatitis B: understanding the gaps

     Webversion Impact Report.

     • Google Scholar
121. Website

     1. University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust

     (2013) Find & Treat Service

     Accessed June 1, 2022.

     https://www.uclh.nhs.uk/our-services/find-service/tropical-and-infectious-diseases/find-treat-service
122. 1. Veselíny E
     2. Janicko M
     3. Drazilová S
     4. Siegfried L
     5. Pastvová L
     6. Schréter I
     7. Kristian P
     8. Viág L
     9. Jarcuska P
     10. Valková I
     11. Cáriková K
     12. Senajová G
     13. Fedacko J
     14. Pella D
     15. Mareková M
     16. Gecková AM
     17. Jarcuska P
     18. HepaMeta Team

     (2014) High hepatitis B and low hepatitis C prevalence in roma population in eastern slovakia

     Central European Journal of Public Health 22:S51–S56.

     https://doi.org/10.21101/cejph.a3902

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
123. 1. Wallace J
     2. McNally S
     3. Richmond J
     4. Hajarizadeh B
     5. Pitts M

     (2011) Managing chronic hepatitis B: a qualitative study exploring the perspectives of people living with chronic hepatitis B in australia

     BMC Research Notes 4:45.

     https://doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-4-45

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
124. 1. Ward Z
     2. Campbell L
     3. Surey J
     4. Platts S
     5. Glass R
     6. Hickman M
     7. Story A
     8. Vickerman P

     (2019) The cost-effectiveness of an HCV outreach intervention for at-risk populations in london, UK

     The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 74:v5–v16.

     https://doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkz451

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
125. 1. Wigg AJ
     2. Narayana SK
     3. Hartel G
     4. Medlin L
     5. Pratt G
     6. Powell EE
     7. Clark P
     8. Davies J
     9. Campbell K
     10. Toombs M
     11. Larkin M
     12. Valery PC

     (2021) Hepatocellular carcinoma amongst aboriginal and torres strait islander peoples of australia

     EClinicalMedicine 36:100919.

     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100919

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
126. 1. Williams B
     2. Boullier M
     3. Cricks Z
     4. Ward A
     5. Naidoo R
     6. Williams A
     7. Robinson K
     8. Eisen S
     9. Cohen J

     (2020a) Screening for infection in unaccompanied asylum-seeking children and young people

     Archives of Disease in Childhood 105:530–532.

     https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2019-318077

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
127. 1. Williams J
     2. Vickerman P
     3. Douthwaite S
     4. Nebbia G
     5. Hunter L
     6. Wong T
     7. Ruf M
     8. Miners A

     (2020b) An economic evaluation of the cost-effectiveness of opt-out hepatitis B and hepatitis C testing in an emergency department setting in the united kingdom

     Value in Health 23:1003–1011.

     https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jval.2020.03.014

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
128. 1. Wirtz AL
     2. Yeh PT
     3. Flath NL
     4. Beyrer C
     5. Dolan K

     (2018) Hiv and viral hepatitis among imprisoned key populations

     Epidemiologic Reviews 40:12–26.

     https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxy003

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
129. Website

     1. World Health Organization

     (2002) Hepatitis B

     Accessed November 16, 2022.

     https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/67746/WHO_CDS_CSR_LYO_2002.2_HEPATITIS_B.pdf;jsessionid=2858FB5335D4BAD2E7C8478256FF0F86?sequence=1
130. Website

     1. World Health Organization

     (2017) Hepatitis B vaccines: WHO position paper

     Accessed November 16, 2022.

     https://www.who.int/teams/immunization-vaccines-and-biologicals/policies/position-papers/hepatitis-b
131. Report

     1. World Health Organization

     (2018a)

     Global Status Report on Alcohol and Health Geneva

     Switzerland: World Health Organisation.

     • Google Scholar
132. Report

     1. World Health Organization

     (2018b)

     Report on the Health of Refugees and Migrants in the WHO European Region

     Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organisation.

     • Google Scholar
133. Website

     1. World Health Organization

     (2020) Prevention of mother-to-child transmission of hepatitis B virus: Guidelines on antiviral prophylaxis in pregnancy

     Accessed November 18, 2022.

     https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-000270-8
134. Website

     1. World Health Organization

     (2021) Hepatitis B

     Accessed March 7, 2022.

     https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-b
135. Website

     1. World Health Organization

     (2022a) Immunization dashboard

     Accessed November 16, 2022.

     https://immunizationdata.who.int/
136. Website

     1. World Health Organization

     (2022b) Triple elimination initiative of mother-to-child transmission of HIV, syphilis and hepatitis B

     Online. Accessed November 22, 2022.

     https://www.who.int/initiatives/triple-elimination-initiative-of-mother-to-child-transmission-of-hiv-syphilis-and-hepatitis-b
137. 1. Wright CM
     2. Boudarène L
     3. Ha NT
     4. Wu O
     5. Hawkins N

     (2018) A systematic review of hepatitis B screening economic evaluations in low- and middle-income countries

     BMC Public Health 18:373.

     https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5261-8

     • Google Scholar
138. 1. Xiao Y
     2. Howell J
     3. van Gemert C
     4. Thompson AJ
     5. Seaman CP
     6. McCulloch K
     7. Scott N
     8. Hellard ME

     (2020) Enhancing the hepatitis B care cascade in Australia: a cost-effectiveness model

     Journal of Viral Hepatitis 27:526–536.

     https://doi.org/10.1111/jvh.13252

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
139. 1. Zewdu S
     2. Hanlon C
     3. Fekadu A
     4. Medhin G
     5. Teferra S

     (2019) Treatment gap, help-seeking, stigma and magnitude of alcohol use disorder in rural ethiopia

     Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, and Policy 14:4.

     https://doi.org/10.1186/s13011-019-0192-7

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar
140. 1. Zhang L
     2. Tao Y
     3. Woodring J
     4. Rattana K
     5. Sovannarith S
     6. Rathavy T
     7. Cheang K
     8. Hossain S
     9. Ferradini L
     10. Deng S
     11. Sokun C
     12. Samnang C
     13. Nagai M
     14. Lo Y-R
     15. Ishikawa N

     (2019) Integrated approach for triple elimination of mother-to-child transmission of HIV, hepatitis B and syphilis is highly effective and cost-effective: an economic evaluation

     International Journal of Epidemiology 48:1327–1339.

     https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz037

     • PubMed
     • Google Scholar

Author details

1. Emily Martyn

   1. The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
   2. London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
   3. Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Conceptualization, Writing – original draft

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

2. Sarah Eisen

   Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

3. Nicky Longley

   1. London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
   2. Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
   3. Department of Infectious Diseases, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

4. Philippa Harris

   Find & Treat Service, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

5. Julian Surey

   1. Find & Treat Service, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
   2. Institute of Global Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
   3. Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain

   Contribution

   Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

6. James Norman

   Find & Treat Service, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

7. Michael Brown

   1. London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
   2. Department of Infectious Diseases, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
   3. Find & Treat Service, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   MB has led local research studies funded by Gilead (an HIV testing study in 2009 or so, and COVID trials 2020-22) and has provided (unfunded) consultancy to Gilead wrt COVID therapeutics

8. Binta Sultan

   1. Find & Treat Service, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
   2. Mortimer Market Centre, Central and North London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

   Contribution

   Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

9. Tongai G Maponga

   Stellenbosch University, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Tygerberg, South Africa

   Contribution

   Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

10. Collins Iwuji

    1. Department of Global Health, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
    2. Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

    Contribution

    Writing – review and editing

    Competing interests

    CI has received support for conference attendance and research grant paid to his institution from Gilead Sciences Ltd

11. Stuart Flanagan

    Mortimer Market Centre, Central and North London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Supervision, Writing – review and editing

    Competing interests

    SF has received travel and conference bursaries from AbbVie, Gilead, Bristol-Myers-Squibb, IMS Health

12. Indrajit Ghosh

    1. Find & Treat Service, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
    2. Mortimer Market Centre, Central and North London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Conceptualization, Writing – review and editing

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

13. Alistair Story

    1. Find & Treat Service, Division of Infection, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
    2. Collaborative Centre for Inclusion Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing – review and editing

    Contributed equally with

    Philippa C Matthews

    Competing interests

    No competing interests declared

14. Philippa C Matthews

    1. The Francis Crick Institute, London, United Kingdom
    2. Department of Infectious Diseases, University College London Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
    3. Mortimer Market Centre, Central and North London NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
    4. Division of Infection and Immunity, University College London, London, United Kingdom

    Contribution

    Conceptualization, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Project administration

    Contributed equally with

    Alistair Story

    For correspondence

    philippa.matthews@crick.ac.uk

    Competing interests

    PCM holds a Wellcome Fellowship and NIHR funding, and receives funding to her research team from GSK

    "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-4036-4269

• 5,892

  views

• 339

  downloads

• 32

  citations

Views, downloads and citations are aggregated across all versions of this paper published by eLife.