The difference between the effects of mutations in the cis- (Figure 2B,C,D) and the trans-element (Figure 2E,F,G) is unambiguous. Most cis-element mutants, in the presence of CI, have low expression (Figure 2B,C,D). Such low expression can result either from sufficient CI repressor binding and/or impaired RNAP binding. The frequency of mutants with an intermediate expression phenotype in the presence of CI increases with the average number of mutations, a pattern that is also observed in cis-element libraries in the absence of CI (Figure 2—figure supplement 1B,C,D). In contrast, the effects of mutations in the trans-element have a distinctive bimodal distribution (Figure 2E,F,G). The two peaks in the distribution correspond to the expression levels of the wildtype population in the absence and presence of CI, revealing that the majority of CI mutants are either fully or close to fully functional, or completely inactive on the wildtype cis background. Furthermore, increasing the average number of mutations in the trans-element decreases the frequency of intermediate expression phenotypes. As the shape of the DME is determined by the underlying biophysical and mechanistic constraints that limit the phenotypic variation accessible through mutation, we conclude that the cis- and the trans-element have categorically different constraints. This categorical difference is best observed in a direct comparison between high mutation cis (Figure 2D) and low mutation trans (Figure 2E) libraries, which have approximately the same average number of mutations.

In order to further demonstrate that this categorical difference is not an artifact of the different number of mutations introduced into each element, we show that the same general trend is evident when comparing the effects of 150 random single point mutations of known identity in each, the cis- and the trans-element (Figure 2—figure supplement 2A,B). These measurements were done at the population level, in a plate reader. Point mutations in the cis-element, when only their effect on RNAP binding is measured, show a high frequency of intermediate expression levels. This is in agreement with other studies of prokaryotic (Kinney et al., 2010) and eukaryotic (Shultzaberger et al., 2012) DNA-binding sites. Similarly, we find a bimodal distribution of single mutation effects in the trans-element CI, which has previously been reported for other transcription factors (Pakula et al., 1986; Markiewicz et al., 1994) and enzymes (Jacquier et al., 2013), and may be a common feature of proteins that are close to their optimum (Soskine and Tawfik, 2010; Bataillon and Bailey, 2014).

The DMEs for the system, in which both the cis- and the trans-element are mutated simultaneously, show a surprising pattern: a higher frequency of intermediate phenotypes compared to either of the individual component DMEs (Figure 2H,I,J). This pattern can also be observed in the library of 150 random system double mutants (Figure 2—figure supplement 2), which consist of a unique combination of the previously described point mutations in cis and in trans (comparing system to cis: D_KS = 0.39, p<0.0001; system to trans: D_KS = 0.66, p<0.0001). Furthermore, the frequency of intermediate phenotypes increased with the average number of mutations (Figure 2). At intermediate and high mutation probabilities, the Shannon entropy of the system DMEs was also greater than the entropy of either of its constitutive components (Figure 2; Figure 2—source data 3), indicating that mutating the whole system gives rise to a more uniform range of possible phenotypes. The existence of a difference between system DMEs in the absence (Figure 2—figure supplement 1H,I,J) and in the presence of repressor CI (Figure 2H,I,J) indicates that a substantial portion of mutant CIs exhibit binding to the mutated cis-element backgrounds, and are thus functional repressors that specifically recognize operator mutants.

We tested if the observed differences between the system and the component DMEs might arise from differences in the gene expression noise of mutants - if the system mutants have greater noise, they could also lead to an increase in the frequency of intermediate phenotypes. However, this is unlikely as, for every mutation probability, we observed no difference in gene expression noise in our flow cytometry measurements (measured as the coefficient of variation) between 20 randomly selected system, cis, and trans mutants in the presence of CI (Figure 2—figure supplement 3, 4 and 5). Furthermore, gene expression noise was constant between all 180 random isolates (60 isolates from each of the three mutation probabilities) irrespective of their mutation probability (Figure 2—source data 1).

We wanted to understand if the observed increase in the abundance of intermediate phenotypes when the whole system mutates (Figure 2) can be attributed to epistatic interactions between mutations in the cis- and the trans-element. Since we use log₁₀ of expression as our phenotype of interest, we calculate epistasis between mutations in the two components of the system (what we call intermolecular epistasis) as the deviation from the additive prediction based on single component effects. The additive null prediction for interactions between mutations, when considering only three possible categories of mutational effects (‘no’, ‘intermediate’, and ‘high expression’), is shown in Table 1. The standard approach of extending these predictions to whole distributions requires a convolution of individual component DMEs (Orr, 2003; Lee et al., 2010). To obtain this ‘naïve’ null prediction, we convolved the observed trans-element DME (shown in Figure 2E,F,G) with the distribution showing how mutations in cis alter wildtype expression (for further details, see Materials and methods). Note that effectively no mutations in cis or trans decrease expression relative to the wildtype, resulting in a ‘naïve’ system prediction exhibiting an increase in the frequency of mutants with high expression phenotypes, as seen in Figure 2H,I,J. We find that ‘naïve’ convolution predictions, which are carried out in the absence of any knowledge of the genetic regulatory structure of the system, are significantly different from the observed system distributions (Figure 2H,I,J), suggesting the existence of intermolecular epistasis between the two components.

To further show that intermolecular epistasis between the cis- and the trans-element is a common feature of our system that shapes DMEs not only at elevated mutation rates but also when only a single point mutation is present in each of the components, we utilized the previously described 150 random system double mutants (Figure 2—figure supplement 2), which consist of a unique combination of a single point mutation in cis and a single point mutation in trans (Figure 3—figure supplement 1; Figure 3—source data 1). In a plate reader, and hence at the level of a monoclonal population, we measured expression levels of all 150 system double mutants, as well as their corresponding single mutants, in the presence of CI (Figure 2—figure supplement 2). From these measurements, we calculated epistasis as the deviation from the additive expectation based on wildtype-normalized single mutant effects. This definition of epistasis mirrors the convolution approach utilized for the analysis of DMEs in Figure 2.

Intermolecular epistasis was common between single point mutations in our system, as 71 of 150 double mutants significantly deviated from their additive expectations (Figure 3, Figure 3—figure supplement 2). As such, intermolecular epistasis impacts expression levels in the system not only when a relatively large number of mutations accumulate, as shown in Figure 2, but also when a single point mutation is introduced in each of the components. Furthermore, 53 of these 71 mutants were in positive epistasis, meaning that the double mutant effect was higher than expected based on single mutant effects. Such positive epistasis contributes to the observed increase in the frequency of mutants with intermediate phenotypes in the system (Figure 2—figure supplement 2), as seemingly neutral trans mutations, which fully repress the wildtype cis, show elevated expression on mutated cis backgrounds. On the other hand, the presence of negative epistasis indicates a penetrant trans mutation, whose high expression on the wildtype cis is decreased on a mutated cis background. Such epistasis most frequently arises from loss-of-function trans mutations, in which the system expression level in the presence of CI is determined only by the effect of the cis mutation in the absence of CI. Consequently, we observed negative epistasis in 8 of 10 trans single point mutants that exhibited no measurable repression (Figure 3—source data 2). We did not identify any relationship between the presence of intermolecular epistasis and the physical location of mutations in the trans- (χ²₍₄₎=2.02; p=0.73) or the cis-element (χ²₍₅₎=1.69; p=0.89)(Figure 3—source data 1), indicating that even though individually mutations in some loci have a greater effect on expression level, they are not associated with any particular form of epistasis.

Figure 3 with 6 supplements see all

Download asset Open asset

Figure 3—source data 1

Identity and location of mutations in the 150 random double mutant library.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.28921.023

Download elife-28921-fig3-data1-v3.xlsx

Figure 3—source data 2

Calculating epistasis from the effects of 150 random double mutants and their corresponding single point mutations, measured in plate reader.

The data provided here are shown in Figure 3, Figure 2—figure supplement 2, and Figure 3—figure supplement 1.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.28921.024

Download elife-28921-fig3-data2-v3.xlsx

Figure 3—source data 3

Gene expression noise in single and double mutants is constant.

Flow cytometry data obtained for 60 double mutants and their corresponding single mutants, in the absence and in the presence of CI, was used to quantify gene expression noise. The data provided here are shown in Figure 3—figure supplements 2, 3 and 4.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.28921.025

Download elife-28921-fig3-data3-v3.xlsx

Figure 3—source data 4

Calculating epistasis from the effects of 60 random double mutants and their corresponding single point mutations, measured in flow cytometer.

The data provided here are shown in Figure 3—figure supplement 1.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.28921.026

Download elife-28921-fig3-data4-v3.xlsx

In the system we study, the genetic regulatory structure (Figure 1) indicates that mutations in cis affect both the binding of RNAP and of the repressor. A comparison to the ‘naïve’ convolutions performed without accounting for this regulatory structure (Figure 2) demonstrates that the presence of intermolecular epistasis prevents accurate predictions of system DME from individual component DMEs. We wanted to understand if these predictions could be improved by accounting for the effects of cis-element mutations on RNAP binding, which are measured in the absence of CI. In other words, we wanted to connect the basic knowledge of the regulatory structure of the system to the epistasis between mutations in the two components.

To do so experimentally, we combined the high mutation probability cis and the low mutation probability trans-element libraries (Figure 4). We chose these two libraries because they have similar expected number of mutations (n ~ 6), therefore minimizing a potential bias in their mutational effects arising from the difference in the number of mutations in the two components. We used FACS to partition the mutant libraries into the three phenotypic bins (no expression, intermediate, and high expression, as in Figure 2). In this manner, we partitioned two libraries: the high mutation cis-element library in the absence of CI (Figure 2—figure supplement 1D) and the low mutation trans-element library in the presence of CI (Figure 2E). We constructed nine new mutant libraries with all possible combinations of these partitions (Figure 5A–I). From these combination DMEs, measured in the presence of CI, we calculated the expected frequencies of mutants in each of the three categories, by weighting each combination DME by the relative frequency of the original trans-element partition it was derived from. Then, the predicted frequency in each category of the system DME is the sum of the weighted counts in the corresponding category across all nine DMEs (see Materials and methods). These predicted frequencies were not different from the observed ones (Table 2). As such, only by experimentally accounting for the genetic regulatory structure of the system (Figure 1) can we accurately predict mutant frequencies in three biologically meaningful categories and qualitatively explain how the cis background alters the phenotypic effects of trans-element mutations, as detailed in the legend to Figure 5.

Figure 4

Download asset Open asset

Figure 5

Download asset Open asset

We also produced a mathematical prediction of the system DME that incorporated the knowledge of its genetic regulatory structure. To do so, in addition to incorporating the knowledge of the effects of cis mutations in the absence of CI, we also assumed that all trans-element mutations that have high expression (same expression as the wildtype in the absence of CI) are loss-of-function mutants, which do not bind any mutated cis. When convolving the two component distributions, the effects of such loss-of-function trans mutants are removed and replaced by the cis-element DME in the absence of CI. This approach, which accounts for the effects of cis mutations on RNAP binding, captures the frequencies of mutants in the three phenotypic categories (‘no’, ‘intermediate’, and ‘high’ expression) more accurately than the ‘naïve’ convolutions (Figure 4; Table 2; Figure 2—figure supplement 6). From a theoretical evolutionary perspective, it is the deviations from a simple additive model that have well-documented consequences for organismal evolution, as they determine the ruggedness of the adaptive landscape (de Visser and Krug, 2014). Here, we show how those deviations emerge from the underlying genetic regulatory structure, and hence how they might lead to better predictions of regulatory system DMEs.

While considering the effects of cis-element mutations on RNAP binding explains intermolecular epistasis to an extent that allows more accurate predictions of system DMEs, it might not explain all of it. To determine the extent to which intermolecular epistasis cannot be explained by accounting for the genetic regulatory structure of the system, we constructed a second library of 150 system double mutants. This time, instead of randomly combining point mutations in cis- and trans-elements, we combined point mutations with a specific phenotype. Namely, all cis-element point mutants exhibited high expression in the absence of CI, meaning that the binding of RNAP was not measurably impaired (Figure 6—figure supplement 1A). All point mutations in trans used to assemble the 150 double mutants exhibited no expression (Figure 6—figure supplement 1B), meaning that these mutants had a fully functional trans-element on the wildtype cis background. The system double mutant library made in this manner corresponds to the partition combination shown in Figure 5C. In such a library, in the presence of CI, the additive null model predicts that a double mutant would exhibit the same phenotype as its cis point mutant, when the corresponding trans mutant maintains the same binding properties as the wildtype CI. When this is true, the system double mutant would not be in significant epistasis. Conversely, the system double mutant in this library would be in significant epistasis only when the trans mutant binds the mutated cis differently than the wildtype trans does.

We found that 15 double mutants in this library are in significant epistasis (Figure 6). These mutants maintained a decreased yet substantial dynamical range between the two environments (absence and presence of CI), and hence were still functional regulators (Figure 6—source data 1). Furthermore, all 15 were in positive epistasis, indicating that the double mutant effect is greater than the additive expectation. In such mutants, trans mutations are phenotypically neutral on the wildtype cis, but not on a mutated cis background, meaning that the trans mutant binds the mutated cis less strongly than the wildtype CI does. It is worth noting that the lack of mutants that are in negative epistasis in this library might be due to the strong wildtype binding of the CI repressor, so that introducing point mutations in trans that improve binding is highly unlikely. When mutations in trans induce alterations to the binding properties of the repressor (but not complete loss of function), intermolecular epistasis cannot be accounted for by the underlying structure of the genetic regulatory network. Interestingly, a disproportionate number of double mutants that were in positive epistasis carried a trans mutation in the linker region of the CI (χ²₍₄₎=20.66; p<0.0005), which connects the N-terminal DNA-binding domain with the C-terminal dimerization domain (Figure 6—figure supplement 2; Figure 6—source data 2). This is in contrast to the random double mutant library (Figure 3), where we found no relationships between location of mutation and epistasis.

Figure 6 with 2 supplements see all

Download asset Open asset

Figure 6—source data 1

Calculating epistasis from the effects of 150 double mutants and their corresponding single point mutations, measured in plate reader.

This library consists only of point mutants in cis that lead to high expression in the absence of CI, and point mutants in trans that result in no expression in the presence of CI. The data provided here are shown in Figure 6, and Figure 6—figure supplement 1.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.28921.033

Download elife-28921-fig6-data1-v3.xlsx

Figure 6—source data 2

Identity and location of mutations in the library of 150 double mutant, with a point mutation in cis that leads to high expression in the absence of CI, and a point mutation in trans that leads to no expression in the presence of CI.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.28921.034

Download elife-28921-fig6-data2-v3.xlsx

The right regulatory region of Lambda phage (O_R) is responsible for the decision-making between lysis or lysogeny (Johnson et al., 1981). The regulatory region consists of two RNA polymerase (RNAP) binding sites - promoters P_R and P_RM (not shown), and three CI/Cro transcription factor operators (O_R1, O_R2, and O_R3) (Figure 1A). In the wildtype system, the strong promoter P_R leads to expression of the transcription factor Cro. The transcription factor CI represses P_R promoter by direct binding-site competition with RNAP.

We used a synthetic system based on the Lambda phage switch, in which we decoupled the cis- and trans-regulatory elements (Figure 1B,C). We removed cI and substituted cro with venus-yfp (Nagai et al., 2002) under control of P_R promoter, followed by a T1 terminator sequence. The O_R3 site was removed in order to remove the P_RM promoter. Separated by a terminator sequence and 500 random base pairs, we placed cI under the control of P_TET, an inducible promoter regulated by TetR (Lutz and Bujard, 1997), followed by a TL17 terminator sequence. In this way, concentration of CI transcription factor in the cell was under external control, achieved by addition of the inducer anhydrotetracycline (aTc). The entire cassette was inserted into a low-copy number plasmid backbone pZS* carrying a kanamycin resistance gene (Lutz and Bujard, 1997). In this system, cI constitutes the trans-element, while the P_R promoter together with the two CI operator sites O_R1 and O_R2 make the cis-element.

The library of cis- and trans-element mutants was created using the GeneMorph II^TM random mutagenesis kit (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, US). We created three mutant libraries with different average probability of mutations (0.01, 0.04, and 0.07 mutation chance per nucleotide) for both the transcription factor (714 bp) and the P_R cis-regulatory element (84 bp). Therefore, the average number of mutations per mutant in the trans-element libraries was 7, 28, or 49, while in the cis-element it was 1, 3, or 6, respectively. We applied the same likelihood of mutation per nucleotide rather than using the same actual number of mutations between equivalent cis- and trans-element libraries in order to more accurately represent the biological process of mutagenesis.

PCR products of mutagenesis reactions were ligated into the wildtype construct, and inserted into One-Shot Top10 cells (Life Technologies, Carlsbad). This step was used to maximize the library diversity due to One-Shot Top10 cells’ high competency. Following electroporation, cells were plated at low concentrations on selective kanamycin plates to allow single colony formation and minimize resource competition, and grown overnight. Using chilled LB media, colonies were washed off the plates and collected. To ensure large coverage, we cloned mutagenized PCR products until we obtained at least 30,000 individual colonies (uniquely transformed individuals). Due to the stochastic nature of the mutagenesis protocol used (Agilent Technologies), the number of uniquely transformed individuals did not necessarily equal the number of different mutant genotypes, especially at low mutation rates. To illustrate, when the mutation rate was low so that a cis-element mutant would have on average only one mutation, some PCR mutagenesis products did not contain any mutations. When mutations were in the trans-element, which is ~10-fold longer, almost all PCR mutagenesis products contained several mutations. Using the information provided by the supplier (which we verified by sequencing 40 mutants from each cis and trans library, see below) on the distributions of the number of mutations (given a mutagenesis rate), we estimated that approximately 34.2%, 3.5%, and 0.2% of the low, intermediate, and high mutation number cis-element libraries consisted of wildtype genotypes. The comparative proportion of wildtype genotypes in the trans-element libraries was 0.07%, 10⁻¹³%, and 10⁻²²%.

Populations containing a mixture of mutants with a given number of mutations were used to isolate plasmids, and clone them into the modified MG1655 strain expressing tetR gene from a constitutive PN₂₅ promoter. We showed that the distributions of mutation numbers in 40 isolated individuals from each library conformed to the distributions of mutation numbers provided by the supplier. We did this by comparing the actual distribution of the number of mutations to the Poisson distribution based on the predicted mutation probability, using a Kolmogorov-Smirnov (K-S) test (Figure 2—source data 2). We used a power test to determine that the sample size of 40 was sufficient to verify the predicted number of mutations, with power set at 0.80 and desired detectable difference of ±0.5 mutations. Among the 240 sequenced mutants from the six libraries (6 × 40), we found no bias toward a specific type of mutations (transitions vs. transversions), nor did we identify overrepresentation of any particular single point mutation or locus in this dataset. From the sequenced mutants, we could estimate the proportion of re-ligated wildtype plasmid, in which the mutated region was not inserted and instead the wildtype used as the cloning template re-ligated back (this is a common occurrence with any library created through standard restriction-digestion cloning techniques). By observing the frequency of wildtype genotypes in the sequenced trans libraries (which, due to the relatively large number of mutations should not contain any wildtype sequences), we estimate that < 5% of each library is re-ligated with the wildtype insert (Figure 2—source data 2). As this is a relatively small frequency to estimate precisely from sequencing 120 clones (3 × 40 trans library sequences), we do not account for it when considering the proportion of wildtype cells in each library. More importantly, this bias should be the same for all libraries and is therefore unlikely to alter our comparative analyses. Finally, among the 240 sequenced plasmids, we did not observe any that contained neither the mutated nor the wildtype insert, as all sequenced plasmids had an insert from cloning.

To make the whole system libraries, we removed through restriction digestion the mutated cis-element from each cis library and cloned it into the plasmid library already containing trans-element mutants with the corresponding mutation probability. Note that system libraries created in this way would likely have somewhat reduced diversity compared to either cis or trans libraries, as stochastically some mutants present in the component libraries would not find their way into the combined system library. By our design, this potential reduction in diversity would be equally biased toward cis and trans mutants, and ought not to be inflated for one component compared to the other.

In this study, we set out to understand phenotypic effects of mutations and to connect the DMEs to the epistasis between the two components. To achieve this goal, we investigated the DMEs in random mutant libraries, therefore without knowing the identity of the specific mutants. We did not characterize individual mutants, as drawing conclusion about the effects of specific mutations would require an unachievable high number of mutants to be analyzed. This was because the relatively large number of mutations introduced, in particular in the trans-element where each individual in the low mutation probability library contained on average seven point mutations, meant that we covered a very large mutational space. As such, we would need to characterize an astronomical number of mutants to gain the statistical power necessary to discern the effects of individual mutations from the interactions between them. Marginal sampling of such a huge sequence space, which is the best we could achieve, would tell us nothing about how individual positions affect the overall DME.

In order to obtain the distributions of phenotypic effects of mutations in mutant libraries, we used flow cytometry/fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) to analyze expression levels of a yellow fluorescence protein. For all libraries, we measured gene expression levels both in the absence and in the presence of the transcription factor CI, determined by absence or presence of the inducer aTc, respectively. Throughout, we use log₁₀ of expression level as our phenotype of interest. Mutant libraries, as well as the wildtype construct, were grown overnight in M9 minimal media supplemented by 1% casamino acids, 2% glucose, and 30 μg/ml kanamycin, and either without or with 8 ng/ml aTc. From this point, the investigator was blinded with respect to the identity of each processed library. Overnight populations were diluted 100 times, grown for 2 hr, diluted a further 10 times and their fluorescence measured in a BD FACSAria^tm III cell sorter. Fluorescence of 500,000 cells was measured for each replicate of each library. Two independent replicates of each mutant library and the monoclonal wildtype population in each of the two growth conditions were measured in the manner described above. All flow cytometry data were subsequently analyzed in FlowJo version 10.0.8r1, and measurements with extreme FSC-A and SSC-A values were excluded from the analyses. The two replicate measurements of each library exhibited the same distributions of fluorescence phenotypes (tested by the K-S test) and were pooled together, to give a million counts for each library.

We verified that 1 million individual measurements, as well as the library diversity of at least 30,000 mutants, accurately described phenotypic distributions of possible mutations. To ensure that we are capturing a significant proportion of all possible phenotypic effects, we subsampled progressively smaller number of measurements (n = 500,000; n = 250,000; n = 100,000; n = 50,000) of cis- and trans-element mutant libraries, in each relevant environment (both absence and presence of CI for cis-element libraries, and only presence of CI for trans-element libraries). We quantified the difference between each subsampled dataset and the corresponding full dataset using a K-S test, and found that, by randomly subsampling each dataset 50 times, the distributions of phenotypes in subsamples were not statistically different from the distribution of the full dataset (Figure 2—source data 4).

Shannon entropy was used as an estimate of how uniform the distribution is across the whole range of possible phenotypes. The range of possible phenotypes was defined by the minimum and the maximum fluorescence measurement in the entire dataset, across all measured mutant library DMEs. Entropy was calculated as:

where P_k is the frequency of fluorescence measurements in the k^th bin, and $\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{x}$ is the width of the bin, which was set to 0.05. In principle, values of entropy estimates depend on the bin width, so we checked explicitly that our conclusions do not depend on this particular choice. Error associated with each entropy measurement was calculated using standard bootstrapping methods. We performed a nonparametric permutation test to assess if the differences in entropy are significant.

We randomly isolated 20 cis, 20 trans, and 20 system mutants, from each mutation probability library, giving rise to 180 isolates. Power analysis (power.anova.test function in R statistical package) indicated that 20 samples in each category were sufficient to detect differences in gene expression noise of 2%, at significance level of 0.05 and power greater than 0.9. In a flow cytometer, we measured gene expression levels in the presence of CI in 100,000 individual counts, for two replicates of each mutant isolate, as well as for the wildtype. First, using a K-S test, we confirmed that the two replicate distributions for each mutant were not significantly different. We combined the two replicate measurements, and then randomly sampled without replacement 5000 reads from this common pool ten times (Figure 2—figure supplement 3, 4 and 5). Gene expression noise for each such sub-sample of 5000 reads was estimated as the coefficient of variation, as done in other studies on gene expression noise (Metzger et al., 2015). Note that the gene expression noise measured in this manner comes from two sources – the heterogeneity of gene expression between individual cells and the measurement error inherent in the flow cytometer. We assume that the measurement error is constant between all mutants, so that possible changes in the coefficient of variation would indicate a difference in the heterogeneity of gene expression between genetically identical individuals. Using ANOVA (aov function in R statistical software, version 3.4.1), we asked if there were differences in the noise of gene expression between the 60 mutants of the same mutation probability, as well as between all 180 tested mutants. We performed this test separately for the mutants that had no expression (that were fully contained in the ‘no expression’ category), and for all other mutants. These two groups were treated separately because the flow cytometry fluorescence measurement is not responding to the same intracellular environment when the cell is producing a fluorescence protein and when it is not. As such, estimates of gene expression noise in the two categorically different types of intercellular environments are not directly comparable (Figure 2—source data 1). Note that the tests carried out across all three mutation probabilities, which included 95 mutants with no fluorescence and 85 mutants with fluorescence, found no differences in gene expression noise. The probability of mutants with significantly different noise existing in the library but not being detected at such sample sizes is less than 10⁻⁴ (calculated using experimentally-observed within and between group variance and at power level of 0.9). For a library of 30,000 random mutants, this would mean that no more than 10 system mutants could have different gene expression noise. For such a small number of mutants to skew the observed system DMEs and lead to an increase in intermediate phenotypes would be possible only if they were strongly overrepresented in the library. This is unlikely the case, since all 180 isolated mutants had growth rates that were comparable to the wildtype, and hence increase in noise would have to be hugely beneficial on a very short time scale (around 10 generations).

Let us consider the effects of mutations, m_cis and m_trans, in two components of a system. As our phenotype of interest is log₁₀ of fluorescence level, we assume that, if two mutations are independent, their effects are additive: m_expected = m_cis + _mtrans. A deviation from this additive assumption is termed epistasis, so that: ε = m_observed mex_pected. Note that a deviation from an additive expectation in log is equivalent to a multiplicative prediction on the linear scale. When considering a library of mutants in two components, their effects are represented by corresponding DMEs, f_cis(m) and f_trans(m), where m is the ‘true’ effect of a random mutation on the wildtype, in the absence of experimental noise and measurement errors. If one could obtain ‘true’ DMEs for mutant libraries (in the absence of any type of noise or error), then the additive null expectation should follow a simple convolution of the two distributions: f_expected = f_cis * f_trans. Any deviation of the observed combined library DME (f_observed) from the f_expected is indicative of epistasis.

In a realistic setting, experimental noise and instrumental error prevent direct measurements of the ‘true’ underlying DME (f), so that any measured DME (F) incorporates all the errors with its ‘true’ DME f. This means that, if the experimental noise and instrumental error do not change between mutants and across the dynamical measurement range, as is the case for our data (Figure 2—source data 1; Figure 3—source data 3), then the observed DME (F) of a mutant library is equivalent to a convolution between its ‘true’ underlying DME (f) and the measured wildtype distribution (F_wt): F = f * F_wt. In other words, the ‘true’ DME (f) shows how mutations alter wildtype expression. It follows that the additive prediction for the combined library, in the absence of epistasis, is a convolution of three DMEs:

F⁺_expected = f+_expected * F⁺_wt = f ⁺_cis * f ⁺_trans * F⁺_wt

where f ⁺_cis and f ⁺_trans are the ‘true’ distributions of the cis- and the trans-element, respectively, and the superscript ‘+’ indicates the presence of CI. The same equality would of course hold true in the absence of CI, but the analysis is trivial, as then the trans library shows no difference to the corresponding wildtype F^--_wt, that is f ^--_trans is a unit element for the operation of convolution (delta-distribution). For simplicity, we will omit the subscript when discussing DMEs obtained in the presence of CI.

The additive prediction (multiplicative in log₁₀ of expression) can be rewritten in two equivalent forms:

1. F_expected = F_cis * f_trans

2. F_expected = f_cis * F_trans

To obtain either of the underlying ‘true’ DMEs, we would need to deconvolve the wildtype distribution from one of the measured component library DMEs. However, although well understood and well behaved analytically, (de)convolutions are known to be highly unstable when used on numerical datasets, like ours. Therefore, we would need at least one of the component distributions in their analytical form. Instead of fitting one of the measured DMEs to some analytical representation followed by a deconvolution, we decided to directly ‘reverse engineer’ one of the component DMEs. We chose the cis DME in the presence of CI, as the simpler of the two. Concretely, we searched for f_cis, such that its convolution with F_wt matches the observed F_cis as closely as possible. We assumed f_cis to be from the gamma-family, as a relatively wide family of curves often used to describe DMEs (Figure 2—figure supplement 7A). We optimized three parameters of the f_cis: shape, scale, and location, to minimize the squared differences between the observed cis-element DME (F_cis) and f_cis * F_wt (Figure 2—figure supplement 7B). Note that the ‘true’ cis DME indicates that effectively all mutations in cis are either neutral or they increase expression. Because of this, convolving the ‘true’ cis distribution with any other distribution results in an overall increased expression, independently of where the original distribution is centered. This is in line with the usual treatment of single mutant effects: if an effect of a mutation is positive, the additive model states that the effect remains positive (and the same), independently of the genetic background.

After we obtained the ‘true’ DME for cis (f_cis), we convolve it with the observed trans DME to produce a naïve null-model for the system DME in the absence of epistasis. Convolving without any adjustments results in a part of the predicted system DME that lies beyond the highest experimentally recorded fluorescence levels (Figure 2—figure supplement 7C). Because we use one of the strongest known promoters, the Lambda P_R, predictions that have higher expression than the wildtype are not biologically meaningful, as no combination of component mutations could experimentally result in such high expression levels. To reflect this maximal biologically obtainable limit to expression levels, we introduce a cutoff, effectively treating any mutant that would result in higher expression levels as having the wildtype expression. In practice, we (i) removed the high expression peak from the trans DME (as convolution with those mutants gives rise to higher expression levels), (ii) performed a convolution between the remainder of the trans DME and the f_cis, (iii) introduced a smooth cutoff at maximum expression levels to the convolved distribution, and (iv) added back the residual part of the high-expressing mutants. More specifically in the first step, we fitted the fraction α of the wildtype distribution in the absence of CI (F^--_wt) to minimize its (square) difference to the right-hand part of the high-expression trans peak (Figure 2—figure supplement 7D,E). In this way, we obtained a smooth remainder to convolve with f_cis, which will produce biologically realistic values. In the end, we add back the distribution of the wildtype in the absence of CI (F^--_wt), so to obtain a properly normalized predicted distribution (Figure 2—figure supplement 7F). Because we impose this limit to the highest biologically obtainable expression level, convolving a hypothetical distribution consisting of predominantly high expression phenotypes with the ‘true’ cis distribution (f_cis) would result in only high expression phenotypes.

The prediction for the system DME obtained in this manner reflects only two assumptions: the additive assumption of no epistasis, and the limit to maximal attainable expression levels. As such, this naïve prediction explicitly disregards any information about the genetic regulatory structure of the system. For each mutation probability, we evaluate if the predicted DME is different from the experimentally observed DME by conducting Pearson’s Chi-squared test to compare the frequencies of mutants in the three expression categories (‘no’, ‘intermediate’, and ‘high’ expression).

We created 150 mutants with a random point mutation in cis, and 150 mutants with a random point mutation in trans. Cis-element mutants were identified by Sanger sequencing of 400 randomly selected mutants from the cis-element library with low (0.01) mutation probability. To obtain 150 trans-element mutants, we repeated the random mutagenesis protocol on cI with a very low mutation rate (yielding approximately one mutation per kb). From this reaction, we randomly selected and sequenced 500 mutants in order to identify 150 that contained only a single point mutation. Then, we created a library of 150 double mutants, with one point mutation in the cis- and the other in the trans-element. These 150 double mutants were unique, as each one consisted of a unique pairing between cis and trans point mutations, so that no point mutations were found in more than one double mutant (Figure 3—source data 1).

In a plate reader, we measured fluorescence levels of all 150 double mutants as well as of their corresponding point mutants. The mutants, as well as the wildtype, were grown overnight in M9 minimal media supplemented with casamino acids, 30 μg/ml kanamycin, and either in the absence of CI or in the presence of CI (induced with 8 ng/ml of aTc). The overnight populations were diluted 1000-fold, grown until OD₆₀₀ of approximately 0.05, and their fluorescence measured in a Bio-Tek Synergy H1 platereader. This procedure was replicated six times for each mutant. We performed a series of pairwise t-tests in order to determine which isolates had significantly different fluorescence to the wildtype. Using a K-S test, we compared if the system double mutants had a higher frequency of intermediate phenotypes.

Consistent with convolution-based analyses, we consider expression level as the log₁₀ of fluorescence, so that epistasis is defined as a deviation from an additive model, as ε = m_system - (m_cis +m_trans), where m_system is the wildtype-relative fluorescence of a system double mutant, and m_cis and m_trans the wildtype-relative fluorescence of the two corresponding single mutants. Epistasis was calculated in the presence of CI, as in the absence of CI all trans mutants exhibited wildtype expression, and all system double mutants had the same expression as the cis mutant alone. In order to statistically determine which double mutants exhibited epistasis (i.e. ε not equal 1), we conducted a series of FDR-corrected t-tests. The errors were calculated based on six replicates, using error propagation to account for the variance due to normalization by the wildtype. Variance was not significantly different between measured mutants (Figure 3—source data 2).

It is possible that the estimates of epistasis through population-level measures of fluorescence levels in a plate reader might not be equivalent to estimates obtained through flow cytometry. This would particularly be true if the gene expression noise varied significantly between mutants. In order to confirm this is not the case in our study, we randomly selected 30 double mutants that, based on plate reader measurements, were in significant positive epistasis, 10 double mutants that were in significant negative epistasis, and 20 mutants that were not in significant epistasis. Then, we measured the fluorescence in 100,000 individual reads for two replicates of each isolate in a flow cytometer, in the absence and in the presence of CI (Figure 3—figure supplement 3, 4 and 5). First, we compared if gene expression noise between single and double mutants was the same, by conducing the same kind of analysis as described above, and found no differences between mutants (mutants with no expression: F_83,747 = 0.891; p=0.59; mutants with expression: F_95,855 = 1.332; p=0.174) (Figure 3—source data 3). We also confirmed that the noise in single/double mutants was not different to the gene expression noise in isolates from low, intermediate, and high mutation probability libraries (mutants with no expression: F_166,1494 = 0.765; p=0.746; mutants with expression: F_180,1620 = 1.385; p=0.485). Then, we calculated epistasis in the presence of CI from flow cytometry measurements in the same manner as described for plate reader measurements (Figure 3—source data 4). To evaluate the significance of calculated deviations from the additive expectation (epistasis), we use error propagation on the standard deviation obtained from the combined flow cytometry distributions of the two replicates, and not on the variance between means of replicate measurements (since the measured means for each isolated mutant were near identical between replicates). Linear regression between the estimates of epistasis from the two types of measurements shows that flow cytometry gives the same description of epistasis as the plate reader measurements (F_1,58 = 350.5; p<0.0001) (Figure 3—figure supplement 6).

Because all 150 double mutants were sequenced, we could test if epistasis was associated with the location of mutations. For the trans-element, we identified three locations: the N-terminus and the C-terminus domains, and the linker region between them (Figure 3—source data 1). For the cis-element, the mutations could either be in one of the CI operator sites, in the RNAP contact residues (−10 and −35 regions), in the sites that have direct contact with both, or those that do not have direct contact with either protein (Figure 3—source data 1). Then, we tested if existence of epistasis depended on the location of point mutations through a Pearson’s Chi-squared test, which considered only the binary value for epistasis: either the presence of significant epistasis or its absence.

We wanted to explore if accounting for the genetic regulatory structure of the studied system would improve our ability to predict the system DME from the DMEs of its components. To this end, we put together the low mutation probability trans-element (Figure 2E) and high mutation probability cis-element libraries (Figure 2—figure supplement 1D) and measured the DME for this library in the manner described above. We put together these two libraries as they have approximately the same average number of mutations (seven for the trans- and six for the cis-element), allowing a comparison that is not influenced by the actual number of mutations in each of the two elements.

In order to experimentally predict the frequencies of phenotypes in each category of the low mutation trans-element +high mutation cis-element library, we partitioned the low mutation probability trans-element library in the presence, and high mutation probability cis-element library in the absence of CI. Using FACS, we partitioned each library into three bins, corresponding to the no expression, intermediate, and high expression phenotype categories. We sorted a minimum of 500,000 individuals into each bin, and grew them overnight in LB with 30 μg/ml kanamycin. Using these populations, we obtained a measure of sorting accuracy by obtaining a DME of each trans-element partition after overnight growth. We isolated the plasmids from all six partitioned populations (three cis and three trans), and cloned all possible combinations of cis- and trans-element partitions to make nine new mutant libraries. We obtained a DME for each of these libraries, in the manner described previously.

Then, we obtained a prediction for the frequency of phenotypes in each of the three categories for the system mutant library consisting of low mutation probability trans- and high mutation probability cis-elements. To do so, we weighted the frequencies of phenotypes in each category of each partition combination library in Figure 5 by the frequency of that partition in the original trans-element library (Figure 2E). For example, no expression trans +no expression cis library yielded 93.4% of phenotypes in ‘no expression’ category, and 6.6% of phenotypes in ‘intermediate phenotype’ category. These were weighted by 0.686, which is the frequency of phenotypes in no expression trans-element category from which this particular partition combination library was derived (Figure 2E). All weighted frequencies in the three categories – ‘no expression phenotypes’, ‘intermediate phenotypes’, and ‘high expression phenotypes’ – across all nine partition combination DMEs were added up to obtain a prediction for the distribution of phenotypes for the whole system library. As a control that it is the presence of the cis mutants that leads to a more accurate prediction of frequencies in the three categories, we used the frequencies of phenotypes based on sorting accuracy. These two predicted distributions (experimental prediction based on partition libraries and the prediction based on sorting accuracy) were compared to the actual distributions using a Pearson’s Chi-squared test.

We tested if accounting for the genetic regulatory structure improved the naïve convolution-based prediction of the system DME. Similar to the experimental approach, we incorporated the knowledge of the effects of cis mutations in the absence of CI (F^--_cis). In addition to the previous analysis, we assume that trans mutants showing high expression phenotypes (namely, those mutants that have the same expression as the wildtype in the absence of CI) are loss-of-function mutants that do not bind any cis mutants. To incorporate this information into the convolution, we (i) removed the high expression peak from the trans DME; (ii) performed a convolution between the remainder of the trans DME and the f_cis, (iii) introduced a cutoff, and then, (iv) instead of adding back the high expression wildtype in the absence of CI (F^--_wt), we add the distribution of cis mutations in the absence of CI (F^--_cis). This distribution is, as for the naïve convolution, added in proportion to the removed high expression trans phenotypes to normalize the whole distribution. Then, we evaluated the difference between the predicted DME and the observed system DME using a Pearson’s Chi-squared test, as previously described. We did this for the three system libraries shown in Figure 2 and for the high mutation probability cis +low mutation probability trans library, shown in Figure 4.

While considering the effects of cis mutations on RNAP binding (and hence accounting for the genetic regulatory structure of the system) explained much of intermolecular epistasis we observed in system DMEs, we wanted to evaluate the extent to which other mechanisms might be contributing to epistasis between the cis- and the trans-element. To this end, we designed a library of 150 system double mutants, by combining point mutations in cis- and trans-elements with specific phenotypes. Namely, we selected 150 trans mutants that exhibited full repression, and 150 cis-element mutants that exhibited high expression in the absence of CI (Figure 6—figure supplement 1). The system double mutant library made in this manner corresponds to the partition combination shown in Figure 5G. Note that not all 150 double mutants had a unique point mutation in the cis-element, since we could not identify 150 mutations in cis that did not significantly affect expression levels in the absence of CI. Then, we measured fluorescence levels for all double mutants and their constitutive single mutants, and from those measurements calculated epistasis, in the same manner as described above. Finally, we tested if existence of epistasis depended on the location of point mutations (Figure 6—figure supplement 2; Figure 6—source data 2) with Pearson’s Chi-squared test, as previously described.

The funders had no role in study design, data collection and interpretation, or the decision to submit the work for publication.

We thank N Barton, T Bergmiller, A Betancourt, K Bod’ova, C Igler, C Nizak, T Paixão, MPleska, D Siekhaus, M Steinrueck, and G Tkačik for their invaluable comments on the manuscript. This work was supported by the People Programme (Marie Curie Actions) of the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under REA grant agreement n° [291734] to ML and European Research Council under the European Union's H2020 Programme (FP/2007–2013)/ERC Consolidator Grant [n. 648440] to JPB.

© 2017, Lagator et al.

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use and redistribution provided that the original author and source are credited.