Research Article

Physics of Living Systems

Lonafarnib improves cardiovascular function and survival in a mouse model of Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome

Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, United States
Translational Research Imaging Center, Yale University, United States
Department of Surgery, Yale University, United States
Department of Pathology, Yale University, United States
Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University, United States
Department of Pediatrics, Hasbro Children's Hospital and Warren Albert Medical School, Brown University, United States

Mar 17, 2023

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.82728

Version of Record

Accepted for publication after peer review and revision.

Download
Cite
Share
CommentOpen annotations (there are currently 0 annotations on this page).

166 views

Version of Record published: March 17, 2023 (This version)
Accepted: March 9, 2023
Received: August 16, 2022
Preprint posted: December 19, 2021 (Go to version)

1. Of interest
Coarsening dynamics can explain meiotic crossover patterning in both the presence and absence of the synaptonemal complex

John A Fozard, Chris Morgan, Martin Howard

Research Article Updated Mar 23, 2023
Further reading

Article
Figures and data
Abstract
Editor's evaluation
Introduction
Results
Discussion
Materials and methods
Data availability
References
Decision letter
Author response
Article and author information
Metrics

Abstract

Clinical trials have demonstrated that lonafarnib, a farnesyltransferase inhibitor, extends the lifespan in patients afflicted by Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome, a devastating condition that accelerates many characteristics of aging and results in premature death due to cardiovascular sequelae. The US Food and Drug Administration approved Zokinvy (lonafarnib) in November 2020 for treating these patients, yet a detailed examination of drug-associated effects on cardiovascular structure, properties, and function has remained wanting. In this paper, we report encouraging outcomes of daily post-weaning treatment with lonafarnib on the composition and biomechanical phenotype of elastic and muscular arteries as well as associated cardiac function in a well-accepted mouse model of progeria that exhibits severe perimorbid cardiovascular disease. Lonafarnib resulted in 100% survival of the treated progeria mice to the study end-point (time of 50% survival of untreated mice), with associated improvements in arterial structure and function working together to significantly reduce pulse wave velocity and improve left ventricular diastolic function. By contrast, neither treatment with the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin alone nor dual treatment with lonafarnib plus rapamycin improved outcomes over that achieved with lonafarnib monotherapy.

Editor's evaluation

The authors performed an important study to demonstrate efficacy of lonafarnib, the only approved drug for treating progeria in patients, using a well-established mouse model of the disease. The authors provided convincing evidence that lonafarnib extends lifespan in these mice that is associated with reduced arterial thickening and improved arterial function in an experimental model progeria. This paper is of major interest to scientists and clinicians interested in cardiovascular physiopathology, aging, and progeria in particular.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.82728.sa0

Introduction

Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) is an ultra-rare condition that results from a de novo autosomal dominant mutation to the gene (LMNA) that codes the nuclear envelope scaffolding protein lamin A (De Sandre-Giovannoli et al., 2003; Eriksson et al., 2003), which results in intranuclear accumulation of an aberrant form of the protein called progerin. This accumulation results from a variant that lacks a post-translational proteolytic processing step, leaving the progerin protein permanently modified by a farnesyl group. Clinical trials show that farnesyltransferase inhibitors extend healthspan and lifespan in children afflicted with HGPS (Gordon et al., 2012; Gordon et al., 2014; Gordon et al., 2018), and the US Food and Drug Administration approved on November 20, 2020 the use of the Zokinvy (lonafarnib) to slow the accumulation of progerin with the hope of extending lifespan (Dhillon, 2021).

Although HGPS is characterized by wide-spread tissue and organ abnormalities, premature death appears to result from cardiovascular complications, including atherosclerosis-related heart failure, with progressive left ventricular (LV) diastolic dysfunction as the most prevalent condition observed in a recent clinical study (Prakash et al., 2018). It is well known in the normal aging population that increased aortic stiffness, and attendant increases in central pulse wave velocity (PWV), contributes significantly to both atherosclerosis and diastolic dysfunction/heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (Abhayaratna et al., 2006; van Popele et al., 2006; Desai et al., 2009; Townsend et al., 2015). Importantly, marked increases in ankle-brachial and carotid-femoral PWV have been reported in children with HGPS (Gerhard-Herman et al., 2012) and early results suggested that lonafarnib can lessen this increase (Gordon et al., 2012).

Notwithstanding the promise of lonafarnib in extending the lifespan of HGPS patients, the largest and most recent clinical study evaluated mortality, comparing treated trial patients with a contemporaneous untreated control group as its primary outcome (Gordon et al., 2018). That is, the effects of lonafarnib on central artery stiffness and associated cardiovascular function have not been examined in detail. In this paper, we quantify and compare diverse functional cardiovascular metrics, including elastic and muscular artery stiffness and vasoactivity as well as cardiac performance, in untreated and lonafarnib-treated Lmna^G609G/G609G progeria mice (denoted as GG in figures). The original report of this mouse model indicated 50% survival at 242 days of age in the heterozygous (Lmna^G609G/+) animals but only 103 days in the homozygous (Lmna^G6096/G609G) animals (Osorio et al., 2011). All final assessments of structure and function herein for littermate wild-type (Lmna^+/+, or WT) and progeria (Lmna^G609G/G609G) mice are at 168 or 169 days of age, with increased survival of untreated progeria mice achieved via an improved feeding and care protocol that allowed the cardiovascular phenotype to worsen further, similar to that observed clinically in patients. Importantly, daily post-weaning treatment with lonafarnib improved cardiovascular function and yielded 100% survival to the study end-point of 168 days. Inhibitors of the mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) have also shown some promise in vitro in treating progeria cells (Cao et al., 2011; DuBose et al., 2018), thus we also examined the potential benefits of late-term daily injections of rapamycin. Neither treatment with rapamycin, an inhibitor of mTOR, nor combination therapy of lonafarnib plus rapamycin improved outcomes over lonafarnib alone though these findings must be interpreted cautiously.

Results

The aortic phenotype worsens rapidly in the perimorbid period in progeria

Switching from normal chow placed on the floor of the cage at weaning to a soft gel-based hydrated chow placed on the floor at weaning (i.e. postnatal day P21) coupled with the introduction of a caretaker mouse in each cage extended the mean survival of untreated progeria mice by an additional ~12%, from ~150 (Murtada et al., 2020) to ~168 days of age, at which time cardiovascular function was evaluated. Figure 1A compares standard passive pressure-diameter responses (reflecting the underlying microstructural composition and organization) of the descending thoracic aorta (DTA) in wild-type (WT) littermate and untreated progeria (GG) mice at increasing ages. There was a progressive structural stiffening in progeria (i.e. a left-ward shift of the pressure-diameter response) from postnatal day P42 to P140, with a remarkable stiffening thereafter to P168. This late marked stiffening is associated with a grossly translucent, brittle appearance (Figure 1B), reflecting an extreme diffuse calcification.

Figure 1 with 1 supplement see all

Download asset Open asset

The biomechanical phenotype of the descending thoracic aorta (DTA) worsens progressively in untreated *Lmna^G609G/G609G* progeria (GG) mice relative to age-matched wild-type (WT) littermate mice.

(A) Pressure-diameter responses revealed a progressive structural stiffening in progeria from postnatal day P42 to P100 to P140 to P168 (dark curved arrow). (B) The marked, late-stage aortic stiffening is associated with a translucent appearance and brittle texture. (**C–F**) Passive geometric and mechanical metrics calculated at a common distending pressure of 100 mmHg for the DTA in untreated progeria mice (darker bars) confirmed marked progressive worsening relative to wild-type (light bars). (**G–I**) Vasoactive capacity, revealed as diameter reduction in response to high potassium depolarization of the smooth muscle cell membrane (100 mM KCl), first as a function of time and extent of response and second as steady-state response at 10 min, both for different ages. Note the near complete loss of contractility by P140 and its complete loss by P168 days in progeria. Here, n=5 vessels per group, with *, **, and *** denoting statistical significance, between WT and GG at the age indicated, at p<0.05, p<0.01, and p<0.001, respectively. See also Figure 1—figure supplement 1 for additional biomechanical metrics as well as Source data 1 and 2 for all numerical values.

Quantification of circumferential material stiffness (Figure 1C) and geometry (Figure 1D and E) enables calculation of the local aortic pulse wave velocity via the Moens-Korteweg relation, $P W V = \sqrt{E h / 2 ρ a}$ , where $E$ is material stiffness, $h$ wall thickness, $a$ luminal radius, and $ρ$ mass density of the blood. Circumferential material stiffness was numerically lower in the progeria aorta at P42 relative to that in age-matched wild-type controls (0.84 MPa in progeria, 1.13 MPa in WT), but higher at P168 (1.69 MPa in progeria, 1.11 MPa in WT). This late increase, in combination with a marked increase in wall thickness (from 39 μm at P42 to 115 μm at P168 in progeria) and decrease in luminal radius (from 474 μm at P42 to 371 μm at P168 in progeria), significantly increased the calculated local PWV (Figure 1F) by more than threefold in progeria at 168 days of age (from 5.3 m/s at P42 to 16.2 m/s at P168). The vasoconstrictive capacity of this segment of the progeria aorta was also markedly abnormal (effectively absent) in the perimorbid period, with loss of contractile capacity seen by P140 relative to control (Figure 1G–I). Additional biomechanical metrics for the DTA, including biaxial, are contrasted in Figure 1—figure supplement 1 for wild-type and progeria mice, noting that biaxial wall stretch and stress were markedly lower in progeria, and so too elastic energy storage capacity, especially in the perimorbid period. Because storage of elastic energy during systolic distension normally facilitates the elastic recoil during diastole that augments antegrade and retrograde blood flow, this marked loss of energy storage reveals a dramatic reduction in the biomechanical function of the aorta in progeria.

Lonafarnib improves survival

Only 53% (n=10/19) of the untreated progeria mice survived to the time of scheduled cardiac function assessment at postnatal day P168. By contrast, 100% (n=10/10) of the progeria mice treated daily with lonafarnib (450 mg per kg of gel-based chow), either from the time of weaning at P21 (n=6/6) or from P100 (n=4/4), survived to P168 (Figure 2A and B). Note, however, that 1 of the 6 mice treated from weaning was found dead the day after anesthesia, echocardiography, and recovery whereas an additional 3 of the 10 untreated progeria mice that survived to day 168 were also found dead on day 169, thus resulting in 7/19 (36.8%) untreated progeria mice surviving to P169 versus 9/10 (90%) lonafarnib-treated progeria mice surviving to P169 despite the burden of isoflurane anesthesia and echocardiography on P168.

Figure 2 with 1 supplement see all

Download asset Open asset

Lonafarnib improves survival and central artery stiffness in progeria mice (GG).

(A) Study design, including untreated progeria mice and progeria mice that were given lonafarnib daily in the soft gel-based chow either from postnatal day P100 to P168, denoted L(P100), or from P21 to P168, denoted L(P21), and finally L(P21) plus rapamycin R(100) from P100 to P168. Soft gel-based chow, without or with the drug, was started at weaning (P21) in all mice. (B) All 10 (100%) of the lonafarnib-treated progeria mice, namely 4/4 of the GG + L(P100) and 6/6 of the GG + L(P21) mice, survived to the intended end-point, P168, while only 10 of the 19 untreated GG mice (~53%) survived to P168; note that the one GG + L death occurred at P169, the day after anesthesia, echocardiography, and recovery while three additional untreated GG mice died by P169. The five untreated wild-types (WT) littermate controls all survived to the study end-point, as expected, whereas lonafarnib plus rapamycin did not improve the survival of the progeria mice. Consistent with the improved survival for lonafarnib treatment from P21, the structural stiffness of the descending thoracic aorta (DTA) improved as revealed by both (C) standard pressure-diameter testing ex vivo and (F) local pulse wave velocity (PWV) calculated using the Bramwell-Hill (**B-H**) equation. (**D,E,G**) There was, however, no improvement in intrinsic metrics at physiological conditions. Here, n=4 (lonafarnib from P100) or 5 (all other groups) vessels per biomechanical testing group, with *, **, and *** denoting statistical significance at p<0.05, p<0.01, and p<0.001, respectively. See also Figure 2—figure supplement 1 as well as Source data 1–3 for all numerical values.

Lonafarnib improves aortic composition and properties, but not vasoactive function

Treatment with lonafarnib from either P21 or P100 to P168 improved the structural stiffness of the aorta as revealed by both the pressure-inner radius data (i.e. modest right-ward shifts; Figure 2C) and (despite modest changes in inner radius and circumferential material stiffness, Figure 2D and E) the reduced values of pulse wave velocity (i.e. no longer statistically different from wild-type control values; Figure 2F), here computed independently using the Bramwell-Hill relation ( $P W V = \sqrt{1 / ρ D}$ where $ρ$ is again the mass density of the blood but $D$ is the clinical measure of distensibility, namely, $D = (d_{s y s} - d_{d i a s}) / (P_{s y s} - P_{d i a s}) d_{d i a s}$ where $d$ and $P$ are the inner diameter and distending pressure, respectively, and $s y s$ and $d i a s$ denote systolic and diastolic conditions). This improved PWV at P168 emerged despite minimal improvement with lonafarnib treatment in circumferential wall stress (e.g. from 44 kPa in progeria to 59 kPa when progeria was treated from P21, both relative to a wild-type control value of 201 kPa) and elastic energy storage capability (from 2 to 6 kPa when treated from P21, relative to a wild-type control value of 60 kPa; Figure 2G), with no recovery of the vasoactive capacity of this segment of the aorta (Figure 3A and B).

Figure 3

Download asset Open asset

Lonafarnib treatment improves the vasoactive function of muscular but not elastic arteries.

(**A–B**) The vasoconstrictive capacity of the aorta declined progressively in untreated progeria mice to near nonexistent levels by postnatal day P140, which persisted to P168, and lonafarnib treatment from P21 or P100 did not improve this function when evaluated at P168. (**C–D**) There was a similar progressive, though a less severe, decline in vasoconstrictive capacity of the second-order branch mesenteric artery in untreated progeria mice, notably at P168. This mesenteric artery function was improved by lonafarnib treatment from P100 and especially from P21 as revealed by improved vasoconstrictive and vasodilatory function at P168. Vasoconstriction was evaluated isobarically in response to 100 mM potassium chloride (KCl); vasodilatation was evaluated isobarically in response to 10 μM acetylcholine (Ach) following attempted pre-constriction with 1 μM phenylephrine (Pe). n=4 (lonafarnib from P100) or 5 (all others) vessels per group, with *, **, and *** denoting statistical significance at p<0.05, p<0.01, and p<0.001, respectively. See Source data 2 for numerical values. Note that we did not assess mesenteric artery function in the lonafarnib plus rapamycin group given the poor survival outcome.

Histological sections of the DTA from age-matched wild-type and untreated progeria mice at P168 revealed an expected marked decrease in medial smooth muscle cells (namely, a 79% reduction in medial cytoplasm area fraction in Movat staining, from 0.314 to 0.065), a decrease in medial collagen (a 52% reduction in medial area fraction, from 0.094 to 0.046), and dramatic increase in medial proteoglycans (a 3.9-fold increase, from an area fraction of 0.124 to 0.480) with progeria. Although the elastic laminae were largely intact, they appeared less undulated, likely due to the presence of excessive proteoglycans (Figure 4A), which increase intramural Gibbs-Donnan swelling pressures (Murtada et al., 2020). Focusing on the lonafarnib treatment from P21 to P168, histology revealed a slight improvement in smooth muscle area fraction (a 67% rather than 79% reduction), a near preservation of medial collagen (within 4% of wild-type), a significantly lower accumulation of mural proteoglycans (3.0 fold rather than 3.9 fold greater than wild-type) in progeria (Figure 4A and B), and a trend toward lower mural calcification, which manifested primarily between P140 and P168 days in the medial layer of the progeria aorta (Figure 4C and D). These multiple histological changes likely contributed to the improved PWV, in part via a numerically lower wall thickness (from 115 to 95 μm in progeria).

Figure 4 with 1 supplement see all

Download asset Open asset

Lonafarnib treatment improves histological features in the descending thoracic aorta (DTA), with the drug given from P21 to P168.

(A) Representative Movat-stained cross-sections with computer-based automatic separation of elastic fibers (black), cell cytoplasm (red), proteoglycans/glycosaminoglycans (blue), and collagen (yellow) in the medial layer. Note the marked decrease in cytoplasm and increase in proteoglycans/glycosaminoglycan in untreated progeria (GG) relative to wild-type controls (WT), which is partially prevented by lonafarnib (GG + L) treatment started at P21. (B) Quantification of whole wall proteoglycan/glycosaminoglycan area fraction without or with lonafarnib treatment from P21 reveals a significant improvement with the drug. (C) Representative Alizarin Red-stained cross-sections with marked medial calcification were revealed in progeria mice by the dark red color, less with lonafarnib treatment from P21 to P168 (GG + L) relative to untreated progeria. Finally, (D) quantitation of calcification, with a trend toward a reduction with lonafarnib treatment. n=5 per group (with three technical replicate sections per specimen), with *, **, and *** denoting statistical significance at p<0.05, p<0.01, and p<0.001, respectively. See also Figure 4—figure supplement 1 and Source data 4.

Lonafarnib differentially affects elastic and muscular arteries

Elastic (e.g. the aorta) and muscular (e.g. branch mesenteric) arteries remodel differently in hypertension and natural aging (Laurent and Boutouyrie, 2015; Murtada et al., 2021). We thus quantified the biomechanical phenotype of the second-order branch mesenteric artery (MA) as a representative muscular artery, again comparing age-matched wild-type and progeria vessels from P42 to P168 (Figure 5—figure supplement 1). Both structural (pressure-radius and axial force-stretch) and material stiffness were compromised by progeria despite no apparent histological signs of an excessive accumulation of proteoglycans or calcification. Wall thickness was increased, but luminal radius decreased, thus resulting in negligible changes in calculated local PWV. Most dramatic, however, was the progressive decline in vasocontractility from P42 to P168 in the progeria arteries. Treatment with lonafarnib from either P21 or P100 to P168 resulted in a modest shift in the passive pressure-radius behavior relative to untreated but without significant effects on passive geometry and properties (Figure 5A–F). Importantly, however, when given from P100 and especially from P21 to P168, lonafarnib largely prevented the decline in vasoconstrictive and vasodilatory capacity seen in progeria mesenteric arteries that were untreated (Figure 3C and D). This effect is expected to result in an increased vasoactive capacity and ability to regulate lumen size and blood flow in this muscular artery.

Figure 5 with 1 supplement see all

Download asset Open asset

Similar to Figure 2, except for the second-order branch mesenteric artery in age-matched littermate wild-type (WT) control mice and untreated (GG) and treated (GG + L) progeria mice for lonafarnib administration from either P21 or P100 to P168.n=4–5 per group.

(**A-F**) Lonafarnib did not improve passive properties. See also Figure 5—figure supplement 1 as well as Source data 1. Note that we did not assess mesenteric artery properties in the lonafarnib plus rapamycin group given the poor survival outcome.

Lonafarnib improves LV diastolic function and aortic PWV but not body mass

Given the improvements in vascular structure and function when lonafarnib was given from the time of weaning, we focused our echocardiography on this treatment arm. All cardiac measurements were compared at 168 days of age for the three primary age-matched study groups: WT, untreated progeria, and progeria treated with lonafarnib from P21 to P168. Noting the lack of improvement in body mass (Figure 6A) despite lonafarnib-improved survival (Figure 2B), most dimensioned cardiac metrics, such as LV chamber volumes and stroke volume (SV), remained lower in both untreated and lonafarnib-treated progeria mice as expected allometrically based on their lower body mass (Murtada et al., 2020). Non-dimensioned metrics such as fractional shortening (FS) and ejection fraction (EF) remained similar across all three groups (WT, untreated, and treated progeria mice) at 168 days of age (Figure 6B), suggesting no loss of systolic function (and by inference, no change with treatment). Importantly, consistent with the improved PWV (calculated independently using two different methods; Figures 2F and 6C), a key measure of diastolic function (E/e’) related to LV filling velocity and mitral motions was preserved in the progeria mice with lonafarnib treatment from P21 to P168 (~43 with treatment vs. 42 for wild-type, both relative to ~81 for untreated progeria mice; Figure 6D), consistent with a trend toward an improved cardiac output (from 13 mL/min in progeria to 23 mL/min with treatment, both relative to 20 mL/min for wild-type controls), which likely contributed, in part, to the increased survival.

Figure 6 with 1 supplement see all

Download asset Open asset

Lonafarnib improves pulse wave velocity (PWV) and left-ventricular diastolic function but not somatic growth.

Focusing on progeria mice (GG) treated with lonafarnib (GG + L) from P21, (A) there was no improvement in body mass measured at P168 despite 100% survival to 168 of the six mice so treated (noting that 1 of the treated mice was found dead on P169 following anesthesia, echocardiology, and successful recovery on P168). (B) There was no decline in left ventricular ejection fraction (EF) in the untreated progeria mice and no improvement with lonafarnib. (C) Conversely, lonafarnib significantly improved pulse wave velocity, as computed using the Moens-Korteweg equation (PWV M-K), and (D) similarly improved left-ventricular diastolic function, as computed by $E / e ’$ . There was similarly an improvement in cardiac output ( $C O$ as detailed in the text). See Source data 5 for all in vivo cardiovascular measurements (n=4–6 per group), with *, **, and *** denoting statistical significance at p<0.05, p<0.01, and p<0.001, respectively. See also Figure 6—figure supplement 1A and Source data 1–5.

Combined lonafarnib and rapamycin did not improve outcomes further

Finally, we examined possible benefits afforded by a combination therapy, daily intraperitoneal injections of the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin from P100 to P168 in progeria mice that received lonafarnib daily from P21 to P168 via the soft chow (Figure 2A). Most importantly, there was no improvement in survival relative to the untreated progeria mice (Figure 2B), which is to say that combination therapy did not confer the increase in survival achieved with lonafarnib monotherapy. Multiple biomechanical metrics of aortic and cardiac function were contrasted across these groups, which among other findings revealed that combination therapy did not improve PWV (Figure 2F), generally consistent with the lack of improvement in intrinsic aortic properties (Figure 2E and G, Figure 2—figure supplement 1). Finally, there was also no improvement in weight gain (Figure 6—figure supplement 1A), no change in left ventricular ejection fraction (Figure 6—figure supplement 1B), and no improvement in left ventricular cardiac output (Figure 6—figure supplement 1C), which was in stark contrast to the aforementioned improvement in cardiac output achieved with lonafarnib monotherapy. Given these findings, it was surprising that diastolic function (measured in terms of E/e’) was similar between the lonafarnib monotherapy and combination therapy (Figure 6—figure supplement 1D). Pilot studies using a rapamycin monotherapy from P100 to P168 also failed to show a survival benefit (Figure 6—figure supplement 1E) and were not pursued further. Finally, given the lack of a survival benefit, the effects of this combination treatment were not assessed in the mesenteric artery, which presented with a milder progeria phenotype.

Discussion

Prior studies have documented marked changes in arterial structure in HGPS, including loss of vascular smooth muscle cells, accumulation of proteoglycans, and increased fibrillar collagen in the adventitia, both in patients (Stehbens et al., 2001; Olive et al., 2010) and in mouse models (Varga et al., 2006; Capell et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2018). Vascular calcification has also been reported in patients and aged Lmna^G609G/+ mice (Villa-Bellosta et al., 2013) as well as in Lmna^G609G/G609G mice crossed with Apoe^-/- mice (Hamczyk et al., 2018). We recently showed in Lmna^G609G/G609G mice that the marked intramural accumulation of proteoglycans in the aortic wall was a driving factor for increasing PWV in the absence of calcification at 140 days of age (Murtada et al., 2020). Here, we demonstrate a further rapid increase in PWV in the perimorbid period in these mice (to ~16 m/s at P168) that is driven in part by extensive medial calcification in the aorta, as observed in some patients. Furthermore, we found a continued decline of smooth muscle contractile capacity to P168, consistent with findings at P140 (Murtada et al., 2020) as well as with reports of reduced responsiveness to vasodilators (Varga et al., 2006).

It has been suggested that Lmna^G609G/G609G mice die from starvation and cachexia, with a high-fat diet improving survival in these mice by ~74% from a mean of 111 days to 193 days (Kreienkamp et al., 2018). Given the potential role of atherosclerosis in the cardiovascular pathology, however, we provided a normal gel-based diet from weaning that facilitated consumption and helped to improve survival to a maximum of ~180 days, with 53% survival at 168 days. This gel-based diet is a nutritionally fortified dietary supplement that combines hydration and nutrition, but with equivalent levels of fat as regular chow. We submit that this increased survival without the added complications of a high-fat diet allowed time for a severe cardiovascular phenotype to manifest that more closely mimics that reported in HGPS patients. Thus, we were able to study the effects of drug intervention on certain key characteristics of severe cardiovascular disease.

HGPS is a mechano-sensitive condition (Kirby and Lammerding, 2018), with stiff tissues and organs most affected. The normal adult murine aorta is highly stressed by hemodynamic loads and it normally expresses high levels of lamin A (Kim et al., 2018). Consistent with this observation, we found the progeroid phenotype to be much more severe in the descending thoracic aorta (with passive intramural stresses >200 kPa in normalcy) than in a branch mesenteric artery (with stresses <65 kPa in normalcy). Reduced contractile responses were marked, however, in both the aorta and mesenteric artery. Lonafarnib treatment resulted in only modest long-term improvements in passive stiffness and geometry of the aorta, yet these effects worked together to reduce PWV significantly (by 36.5%, from 16.2 m/s for the untreated progeria mice to 10.3 m/s in progeria mice treated from P21 to P168), likely due to the observed reduction in mural proteoglycans and calcification and preservation of more smooth muscle despite not rescuing the contractile phenotype (noting that aortic smooth muscle cells are primarily responsible for establishing and maintaining the extracellular matrix of the medial layer, not vasoregulating the luminal diameter). It was previously shown that high-dose tipifarnib also reduces proteoglycan accumulation in the aorta (Capell et al., 2008) though without a detailed assessment of functional consequences. By contrast, lonafarnib had modest effects on the passive properties of the mesenteric artery but largely preserved its vasoconstrictive and hence endothelial-derived vasodilatory potential. This improved vasoactive capacity appears to have led to a modest reduction in mesenteric artery caliber under passive ex vivo conditions. It is well known that arterioles in the systemic vasculature tend to inward remodel in hypertension (due in part to their myogenic capacity), which may help prevent elevated pressure pulses from propagating into the microcirculation of end organs, thus protecting these organs (Boutouyrie et al., 2021). Indeed, we previously found a similar inward remodeling with increased vasoconstrictive capacity in the mesenteric artery in a mouse model of induced hypertension (Murtada et al., 2021). Although we did not assess coronary arteries or the coronary microcirculation, an increased vasoregulatory capacity of muscular arteries due to lonafarnib treatment could have combined with the improved central hemodynamics to improve LV diastolic function. In line with this, recent studies have suggested that heart failure with preserved ejection fraction, which is characterized by the dysfunctional filling of the left ventricle during diastole, associates with coronary artery disease (Rush et al., 2021). There is, therefore, a need to investigate further the potential differential effects of lonafarnib on arteries within the many different vascular beds, particularly in end organs, noting again that the normal levels of hemodynamically-induced stresses differ along the vascular tree.

Although lonafarnib increases lifespan in children with HGPS, the disease remains progressive and patients still die early. Hence, multiple studies have considered combination or other therapies. One trial concluded, however, that there was no further cardiovascular benefit of adding the prenylation inhibitors pravastatin and zoledronic acid (a bisphosphonate) to lonafarnib therapy (Gordon et al., 2016). Improvement in survival was similarly unremarkable for these combination therapies in Lmna^G608G/G608G mice despite improvements in the musculoskeletal phenotype (Cubria et al., 2020). Given that mTOR inhibitors, namely rapamycin (Cao et al., 2011) and everolimus (DuBose et al., 2018), have shown some promise in vitro in treating progeria cells and genetic reduction of mTOR in Lmna^G608G/G608G progeria mice extended lifespan ~30% (Cabral et al., 2021), we also sought to examine functional effects of lonafarnib + rapamycin versus lonafarnib and rapamycin alone. Rapamycin was given from P100 to P168 via daily intraperitoneal (IP) injections at 2 mg per kg of body mass, consistent with a dosing regime shown to be effective in the treatment of aortopathies in mice (Li et al., 2014). We did not find any benefit of the combination therapy when assessing large artery structure or function but instead found early mortality similar to that in untreated progeria mice. Similar findings emerged for rapamycin treatment alone. Given the frailty of these mice, one cannot exclude a detrimental consequence of daily handling and IP injections leading to increased emotional and physical stress, though Lmna^G609G/G609G mice have been reported to tolerate two IP injections per week for five weeks (Lee et al., 2016). Without any clear benefit, our lonafarnib plus rapamycin study was terminated though other methods of drug administration and other concentrations and durations should be considered, particularly given the aforementioned promising results of genetic reductions in mTOR signaling, though germline manipulations also affect tissues developmentally.

Efforts by others are underway to use genetic manipulations to rescue the progeria phenotype, with one study reporting a 26% increase (Santiago-Fernández et al., 2019) and another a 51% increase (Beyret et al., 2019) in median survival rate via disruption of Lmna and progerin transcription. Although these studies provide excellent proof-of-principle, genetic editing occurred primarily in the liver, not in the cardiovascular system, and there was no detailed assessment of potential changes in cardiovascular structure or function. Over 90% of children afflicted with HGPS exhibit the c.1824C>T, p.G608G mutation. Targeted anti-sense therapies in Lmna^G608G/+ and Lmna^G608G/G608G mice have extended lifespans from 33 to 62%, from ~220 days to ~330 days (Erdos et al., 2021; Puttaraju et al., 2021) in these mice, which have a less severe phenotype than Lmna^G609G/G609G mice. Most dramatically, gene editing in the Lmna^G608G/G608G mouse extended its lifespan more than twofold, from 215 to 510 days of age (Koblan et al., 2021). There is, therefore, significant promise for both genetic editing and RNA-based treatment strategies.

Nevertheless, until HGPS clinical trials establish safety and efficacy for genetics-based treatments, pharmacotherapy will likely remain a mainstay in patient care. Importantly herein, daily treatment with lonafarnib from both P21 (weaning) and P100 (maturity) yielded 100% survival of Lmna^G609G/G609G mice to the scheduled time of anesthesia and echocardiography at 168 days of age, which can be contrasted with prior reports of extended 50% survival in these same mice to 133 days (with progerinin treatment; Kang et al., 2021), 140 days (with JH4 treatment; Lee et al., 2016), 161 days (with genetic manipulation; Santiago-Fernández et al., 2019), 173 days (with isoprenylcysteine carboxymethyltransferase; Marcos-Ramiro et al., 2021), and 177 days (with genetic manipulation; Beyret et al., 2019). Although survival was similar between our two lonafarnib cohorts, vascular and cardiac protection was slightly better when treatment was started at weaning. Recalling that LV diastolic dysfunction was the most prevalent cardiovascular abnormality observed in a recent clinical assessment of HGPS patients (Prakash et al., 2018), we submit that the increased survival in our Lmna^G609G/G609G mice having daily lonafarnib monotherapy likely resulted from a combination of multiple modest improvements in large artery composition and function that yet worked together to significantly improve both central artery hemodynamics (PWV) and LV diastolic function, with improved small artery function also likely contributing by attenuating the propagation of pulse pressure waves into end organs. Importantly, these Lmna^G609G/G609G mice, which with lifespan extension via improved feeding and care, otherwise exhibited a particularly severe aortic phenotype in the perimorbid period reminiscent of the phenotype in children. The present findings thus confirm promise and encourage the use of lonafarnib clinically as the field continues to work to develop a definitive cure (progeriaresearch.org).

Materials and methods

Animals

All live animal procedures were approved by the Yale University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC: 2021–11508). Lmna^G609G/G609G mice were originally developed by Osorio et al., 2011. Herein, mice were generated by breeding Lmna^G609G/+ mice to obtain homozygous wild-type (Lmna^+/+=WT) and progeria (Lmna^G609G/G609G, denoted herein as GG in figures) mice, all having a C57BL/6 genetic background. All mice were fed with the same soft gel-based chow (Clear H₂O, DietGel 76 A) placed on the floor of the cage starting at weaning, that is, postnatal day P21. Progeria mice were randomly assigned to treatment versus no-treatment groups. A total of 26 mixed-sex wild-type mice and 68 progeria mice were scheduled for study at P168, noting that we previously found that cardiovascular effects of progeria were statistically independent of sex at least up to P140 (Murtada et al., 2020). Following in vivo collection of echocardiographic data under isoflurane anesthesia, the mice were euthanized using an intraperitoneal injection of Beuthanasia-D either the same (P168) or typically the next (P169) day for tissue harvest, with death confirmed following exsanguination upon removal of the descending thoracic aorta.

Drug treatment

Lonafarnib was provided by The Progeria Research Foundation Cell and Tissue Bank and given daily at a dose of 450 mg per kg of soft gel-based chow (a dose recommended by the Foundation, noting that healthy adult mice typically eat an equivalent of about 10% of their body mass per day) from either postnatal day P21 or P100 to the study end-point of P168/P169. Rapamycin (Millipore Sigma), at a dose of 2 mg per kg of body mass, was given daily via IP injections from P100 to the study end-point both alone and in combination with a P21-P168 lonafarnib-treated cohort. Additional studies should consider other doses, treatment periods, and ages at treatment initiation, but were beyond the present scope given the limited availability of materials.

Cardiac function testing

Following standard procedures (Ferruzzi et al., 2018; Murtada et al., 2020), mice were anesthetized with isoflurane at 168 days of age, and data were collected using a Vevo 2100 ultrasound system (Visualsonic, Toronto, Canada) using a linear array probe (MS550D, 22–55 MHz). Systolic and diastolic function of the left ventricle (LV) were quantified using B-Mode imaging to provide parasternal long axis (LAX) and short axis (SAX) views, with M-Mode imaging in both planes used to track the temporal evolution of cavity diameter at the level of the papillary muscles to measure LV systolic function. B-Mode images of the LV outflow tract diameter and pulsed-wave Doppler images of blood velocity patterns across the aortic valve estimated aortic valve area as a check for valve stenosis. LV diastolic function was monitored using an apical four-chamber view, which was achieved by aligning the ultrasound beam with the cardiac long axis. Color Doppler imaging located the mitral valve, while pulsed-wave Doppler measured mitral inflow velocity. Finally, Doppler tissue imaging from the lateral wall and interventricular septum measured the velocities of tissue motion.

Echocardiographic data were processed using Visualsonic data analysis software and standard methods. Global parameters of the LV function were measured in technical triplicates from individual parasternal LAX and SAX views, and final parameters were obtained as averages from both views. Herein, LV systolic function is characterized by parameters such as cardiac output (CO) and ejection fraction (EF), while LV diastolic functional parameters include peak early (E) filling velocity and peak atrial (A) filling velocity, and their ratio (E/A), as well as the E-wave deceleration time (DT), and tissue velocity (e’).

Although we routinely measure invasive blood pressures at the conclusion of echocardiography in adult mice (via a carotid cut-down and Millar catheter while the mouse remains anesthetized), our attempts in the fragile low-weight untreated progeria mice were inconsistent and generally unsuccessful, thus preventing any reliable comparison of invasive blood pressures across groups. Hence, we do not report any blood pressure.

Biomechanical testing

Our biomechanical testing and analysis follow validated standardized protocols (Ferruzzi et al., 2015; Murtada et al., 2020). Briefly, excised vessels (descending thoracic aorta and the second-order branch mesenteric artery) were mounted on custom-drawn glass cannulae and secured with a 6–0 suture. They were then placed within a custom computer-controlled biaxial device for biomechanical testing (see Gleason et al., 2004, which includes line drawings and a parts list for the device) and immersed in a heated (37 °C) and oxygenated (95% O₂, 5% CO₂ to maintain a physiological pH) Krebs-Ringer bicarbonate buffered solution containing 2.5 mM CaCl₂. The vessels were then subjected to a series of isobaric (distending pressure of 90 mmHg for the aorta, 60 mmHg for the mesenteric artery) - axially isometric (fixed specimen-specific in vivo axial stretch) protocols wherein they were contracted with 100 mM KCl, relaxed (KCl washed out), contracted with 1 μM phenylephrine (PE), then dilated with 10 µM acetylcholine (ACh; without wash-out), an endothelial cell-dependent stimulant of nitric oxide production. Of course, Ach-stimulated vasodilation is possible only following pre-constriction in this ex vivo protocol, hence lack of Ach-stimulated vasodilation of a vessel that cannot contract does not provide information on endothelial cell function.

Upon completion of these active protocols, the normal Krebs solution was washed out and replaced with a Ca²⁺-free Krebs solution to ensure a sustained passive behavior while maintaining heating and oxygenation. Vessels were then preconditioned via four cycles of pressurization (between 10 and 140 mmHg for the aorta, between 10 and 90 mmHg for the mesenteric artery) while held fixed at their individual in vivo axial stretch. Finally, specimens were exposed to seven cyclic protocols: three pressure-diameter (P-d) protocols, with luminal pressure cycled between 10 and either 140 mmHg (aorta) or 90 mmHg (mesenteric) while axial stretch was maintained fixed at either the specimen-specific in vivo value or ±5% of this value, plus four axial force-length (f-l) tests, with force cycled between 0 and a force equal to the maximum value measured during the pressurization test at 5% above the in vivo axial stretch value, while the luminal pressure was maintained fixed at either {10, 60, 100, or 140 mmHg} for the aorta or {10, 30, 60, 90} for the mesenteric artery. Pressure, axial force, outer diameter, and axial length were recorded online for all seven of these protocols and the over 2800 data points per vessel were used for subsequent data analysis (using the last unloading curve of each of the seven protocols, which provides information on elastically stored energy that is available to work on the distending fluid). Prior studies have revealed robust fixed-point estimates of constitutive parameters (see below) based on such data.

Passive descriptors

Five key biomechanical metrics define well the passive mechanical phenotype of the aorta: mean circumferential and axial wall stress, circumferential and axial material stiffness linearized about a physiologic value of pressure and axial stretch, and the elastically stored energy. Each of these metrics is calculated easily given best-fit values of the eight model parameters within a nonlinear stored energy function, herein taken as (Ferruzzi et al., 2015; Murtada et al., 2020)

W = \frac{c}{2} (I_{C} - 3) + \sum_{i = 1}^{4} \frac{c_{1}^{i}}{4 c_{2}^{i}} {e x p [c_{2}^{i} {(I V_{C}^{i} - 1)}^{2}] - 1},

where $c$ (dimension of kPa), $c_{1}^{i}$ (dimension of kPa), and $c_{2}^{i}$ (dimensionless), with $i = 1,2, 3,4$ , are model parameters. $I_{C} = C : I$ and ${I V}_{C}^{i} = {C : M}^{i} ⨂ M^{i}$ are coordinate invariant measures of deformation, with $I$ the identity tensor, $C = F^{T} F$ the right Cauchy-Green tensor, and $F$ the deformation gradient tensor (mapping from the near traction-free configuration to any loaded configuration, which is pressurized and axially stretched herein) and superscript $T$ the transpose of the tensor; $d e t F = 1$ because of assumed incompressibility. The direction of the $i^{t h}$ family of fibers is given by the unit vector $M^{i} = [0, s i n α_{0}^{i}, c o s α_{0}^{i}]$ , with angle $α_{0}^{i}$ computed with respect to the axial direction in the traction-free reference configuration. Based on prior microstructural observations, and the yet unquantified effects of cross-links and physical entanglements amongst the multiple families of fibers, we included contributions of axial ( $α_{0}^{1} = 0$ ), circumferential ( $α_{0}^{2} = π / 2$ ), and two symmetric diagonal families of fibers ( $α_{0}^{3, 4} = \pm α_{0}$ ) to capture phenomenologically the complex biaxial material behavior; this relation has been validated independently by multiple groups.

Theoretical values of the applied loads were computed from components of Cauchy stress by solving standard global equilibrium equations in radial and axial directions (Humphrey, 2002), given the assumption of axisymmetry. Best-fit values of the eight model parameters ( $c, c_{1}^{1}, {c_{2}^{1}, c_{1}^{2}, c_{2}^{2}, c_{1}^{3,4}, c_{2}^{3,4}, α}_{0}^{3,4}$ ) were estimated via nonlinear regression (Levenberg-Marquardt) to minimize the sum-of-the-squared differences between experimentally-measured and theoretically-predicted values of luminal pressure and axial force, each normalized by average experimental measures (Ferruzzi et al., 2015). Best-fit values were defined by the minimum value of the objective function based on three randomly selected sets of initial guesses. Estimated parameters (constrained to be non-negative) were used to compute stress, material stiffness, and stored energy at any configuration. For example, components of the stiffness tensor ( $C_{i j k l}$ ), linearized about a configuration defined by the distending pressure and in vivo value of axial stretch, were computed as

C_{i j k l} = 2 δ_{i k} F_{l A}^{o} F_{j B}^{o} \frac{\partial W}{\partial C_{A B}} + 2 δ_{j k} F_{i A}^{o} F_{l B}^{o} \frac{\partial W}{\partial C_{A B}} + 4 F_{i A}^{o} F_{j B}^{o} F_{k P}^{o} F_{l Q}^{o} \frac{\partial^{2} W}{\partial C_{A B} \partial C_{P Q}} |_{C^{o}}

where $δ_{i j}$ are components of $I$ , $F^{o}$ is the deformation gradient tensor between the chosen reference configuration and a finitely deformed in vivo relevant configuration, and $C^{o}$ is the corresponding right Cauchy-Green tensor. Local aortic PWV was calculated using both the Moens-Korteweg (based on material stiffness and wall geometry) and Bramwell-Hill (based on overall wall compliance) equations, which yielded similar results, thus providing an internal validation of rigor. The former is often preferred for it better delineates contributors to this important metric: circumferential material stiffness, wall thickness, and luminal radius.

Histology

Following biomechanical testing, specimens were unloaded and fixed overnight in 10% neutral buffered formalin, then stored in 70% ethanol at 4 °C for histological examination. Fixed samples were dehydrated, embedded in paraffin, sectioned serially (5 μm thickness), and stained with Movat Pentachrome (showing elastic fibers in black, cytoplasm in red, glycosaminoglycans in blue, collagen in gray-yellow) or Alizarin Red (showing calcium in dark red) for standard histology. Detailed analyses were performed on a minimum of three biomechanically representative vessels per group, with three technical replicates (sections) per vessel. Histological images were acquired on an Olympus BX/51 microscope (under bright light imaging) using an Olympus DP70 digital camera (CellSens Dimension) and a 20 x magnification objective. Custom MATLAB scripts extracted layer-specific cross-sectional areas and calculated positively stained pixels and area fractions (https://github.com/yale-cbl/histological-analysis; copy archived at Yale Continuum Biomechanics Laboratory, 2023).

Statistics

All biomechanical data represent biological, not technical, replicates. Importantly, the data shown for all geometric and mechanical vascular metrics came from computer-controlled ex vivo testing that reduced specimen-to-specimen variability relative to standard testing while generating over 2800 data points per sample, from which nonlinear regression yielded best-fit parameters in a validated constitutive relation (Equation 1) from which measures of stress, stiffness, energy, PWV, etc. were determined. Based on copious prior studies using similar biomechanical data, one- or two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with Bonferroni post hoc testing was used to compare results, with p<0.05 considered significant. All data are presented as mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM).

Standards and data availability

The study was designed consistent with ARRIVE standards with the exception that mice were allocated to groups sequentially, not randomly. That is, only progeria mice were treated and groups were completed in sequence, lonafarnib first, then rapamycin and lonafarnib, then rapamycin alone. Numerical values of all cardiovascular metrics are found in Source Data files, and custom software for histological analysis is found at: https://github.com/yale-cbl/histological-analysis (copy archived at Yale Continuum Biomechanics Laboratory, 2023).

Data availability

All numerical data generated or analyzed during this study are included in the manuscript, supplemental materials, and supporting source data (Excel) files.

References

(2006) Relation of arterial stiffness to left ventricular diastolic function and cardiovascular risk prediction in patients > or =65 years of age
The American Journal of Cardiology 98:1387–1392.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.06.035
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2019) Single-dose CRISPR-cas9 therapy extends lifespan of mice with hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
Nature Medicine 25:419–422.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-019-0343-4
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2021) Arterial stiffness and cardiovascular risk in hypertension
Circulation Research 128:864–886.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.121.318061
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Cabral WA
2. Tavarez UL
3. Beeram I
4. Yeritsyan D
5. Boku YD
6. Eckhaus MA
7. Nazarian A
8. Erdos MR
9. Collins FS
(2021) Genetic reduction of mtor extends lifespan in a mouse model of hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
Aging Cell 20:e13457.
https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.13457
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Cao K
2. Graziotto JJ
3. Blair CD
4. Mazzulli JR
5. Erdos MR
6. Krainc D
7. Collins FS
(2011) Rapamycin reverses cellular phenotypes and enhances mutant protein clearance in hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome cells
Science Translational Medicine 3:89ra58.
https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3002346
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Capell BC
2. Olive M
3. Erdos MR
4. Cao K
5. Faddah DA
6. Tavarez UL
7. Conneely KN
8. Qu X
9. San H
10. Ganesh SK
11. Chen X
12. Avallone H
13. Kolodgie FD
14. Virmani R
15. Nabel EG
16. Collins FS
(2008) A farnesyltransferase inhibitor prevents both the onset and late progression of cardiovascular disease in A progeria mouse model
PNAS 105:15902–15907.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0807840105
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Cubria MB
2. Suarez S
3. Masoudi A
4. Oftadeh R
5. Kamalapathy P
6. DuBose A
7. Erdos MR
8. Cabral WA
9. Karim L
10. Collins FS
11. Snyder BD
12. Nazarian A
(2020) Evaluation of musculoskeletal phenotype of the G608G progeria mouse model with lonafarnib, pravastatin, and zoledronic acid as treatment groups
PNAS 117:12029–12040.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1906713117
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2009) Central aortic stiffness is increased in patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction
Journal of Cardiac Failure 15:658–664.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cardfail.2009.03.006
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. De Sandre-Giovannoli A
2. Bernard R
3. Cau P
4. Navarro C
5. Amiel J
6. Boccaccio I
7. Lyonnet S
8. Stewart CL
9. Munnich A
10. Le Merrer M
11. Lévy N
(2003) Lamin A truncation in hutchinson-gilford progeria
Science 300:2055.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1084125
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Dhillon S
(2021) Lonafarnib: first approval
Drugs 81:283–289.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40265-020-01464-z
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2018) Everolimus rescues multiple cellular defects in laminopathy-patient fibroblasts
PNAS 115:4206–4211.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1802811115
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Erdos MR
2. Cabral WA
3. Tavarez UL
4. Cao K
5. Gvozdenovic-Jeremic J
6. Narisu N
7. Zerfas PM
8. Crumley S
9. Boku Y
10. Hanson G
11. Mourich DV
12. Kole R
13. Eckhaus MA
14. Gordon LB
15. Collins FS
(2021) A targeted antisense therapeutic approach for Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
Nature Medicine 27:536–545.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01274-0
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Eriksson M
2. Brown WT
3. Gordon LB
4. Glynn MW
5. Singer J
6. Scott L
7. Erdos MR
8. Robbins CM
9. Moses TY
10. Berglund P
11. Dutra A
12. Pak E
13. Durkin S
14. Csoka AB
15. Boehnke M
16. Glover TW
17. Collins FS
(2003) Recurrent de novo point mutations in lamin a cause Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
Nature 423:293–298.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01629
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2015) Decreased elastic energy storage, not increased material stiffness, characterizes central artery dysfunction in fibulin-5 deficiency independent of sex
Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 137:0310071–03100714.
https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4029431
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2018) Compromised mechanical homeostasis in arterial aging and associated cardiovascular consequences
Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology 17:1281–1295.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10237-018-1026-7
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2012) Mechanisms of premature vascular aging in children with hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
Hypertension 59:92–97.
https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.180919
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2004) A multiaxial computer-controlled organ culture and biomechanical device for mouse carotid arteries
Journal of Biomechanical Engineering 126:787–795.
https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1824130
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Gordon LB
2. Kleinman ME
3. Miller DT
4. Neuberg DS
5. Giobbie-Hurder A
6. Gerhard-Herman M
7. Smoot LB
8. Gordon CM
9. Cleveland R
10. Snyder BD
11. Fligor B
12. Bishop WR
13. Statkevich P
14. Regen A
15. Sonis A
16. Riley S
17. Ploski C
18. Correia A
19. Quinn N
20. Ullrich NJ
21. Nazarian A
22. Liang MG
23. Huh SY
24. Schwartzman A
25. Kieran MW
(2012) Clinical trial of a farnesyltransferase inhibitor in children with hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
PNAS 109:16666–16671.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1202529109
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2014) Impact of farnesylation inhibitors on survival in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
Circulation 130:27–34.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.113.008285
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Gordon LB
2. Kleinman ME
3. Massaro J
4. D’Agostino RB Sr
5. Shappell H
6. Gerhard-Herman M
7. Smoot LB
8. Gordon CM
9. Cleveland RH
10. Nazarian A
11. Snyder BD
12. Ullrich NJ
13. Silvera VM
14. Liang MG
15. Quinn N
16. Miller DT
17. Huh SY
18. Dowton AA
19. Littlefield K
20. Greer MM
21. Kieran MW
(2016) Clinical trial of the protein farnesylation inhibitors lonafarnib, pravastatin, and zoledronic acid in children with Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
Circulation 134:114–125.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.116.022188
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2018) Association of lonafarnib treatment vs no treatment with mortality rate in patients with Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
JAMA 319:1687–1695.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.3264
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2018) Vascular smooth muscle-specific progerin expression accelerates atherosclerosis and death in a mouse model of Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
Circulation 138:266–282.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.030856
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
Book
1. Humphrey JD
(2002) Cardiovascular Solid Mechanics: Cells, Tissues, and Organs
Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-21576-1
- Google Scholar
1. Kang SM
2. Yoon MH
3. Ahn J
4. Kim JE
5. Kim SY
6. Kang SY
7. Joo J
8. Park S
9. Cho JH
10. Woo TG
11. Oh AY
12. Chung KJ
13. An SY
14. Hwang TS
15. Lee SY
16. Kim JS
17. Ha NC
18. Song GY
19. Park BJ
(2021) Progerinin, an optimized progerin-lamin a binding inhibitor, ameliorates premature senescence phenotypes of hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
Communications Biology 4:5.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-020-01540-w
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Kim PH
2. Luu J
3. Heizer P
4. Tu Y
5. Weston TA
6. Chen N
7. Lim C
8. Li RL
9. Lin P-Y
10. Dunn JCY
11. Hodzic D
12. Young SG
13. Fong LG
(2018) Disrupting the LiNc complex in smooth muscle cells reduces aortic disease in a mouse model of Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
Science Translational Medicine 10:eaat7163.
https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aat7163
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Kirby TJ
2. Lammerding J
(2018) Emerging views of the nucleus as a cellular mechanosensor
Nature Cell Biology 20:373–381.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41556-018-0038-y
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Koblan LW
2. Erdos MR
3. Wilson C
4. Cabral WA
5. Levy JM
6. Xiong Z-M
7. Tavarez UL
8. Davison LM
9. Gete YG
10. Mao X
11. Newby GA
12. Doherty SP
13. Narisu N
14. Sheng Q
15. Krilow C
16. Lin CY
17. Gordon LB
18. Cao K
19. Collins FS
20. Brown JD
21. Liu DR
(2021) In vivo base editing rescues Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome in mice
Nature 589:608–614.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-03086-7
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Kreienkamp R
2. Billon C
3. Bedia-Diaz G
4. Albert CJ
5. Toth Z
6. Butler AA
7. McBride-Gagyi S
8. Ford DA
9. Baldan A
10. Burris TP
11. Gonzalo S
(2018) Doubled lifespan and patient-like pathologies in progeria mice fed high-fat diet
Aging Cell 18:e12852.
https://doi.org/10.1111/acel.12852
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Laurent S
2. Boutouyrie P
(2015) The structural factor of hypertension: large and small artery alterations
Circulation Research 116:1007–1021.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.303596
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Lee S-J
2. Jung Y-S
3. Yoon M-H
4. Kang S-M
5. Oh A-Y
6. Lee J-H
7. Jun S-Y
8. Woo T-G
9. Chun H-Y
10. Kim SK
11. Chung KJ
12. Lee H-Y
13. Lee K
14. Jin G
15. Na M-K
16. Ha NC
17. Bárcena C
18. Freije JMP
19. López-Otín C
20. Song GY
21. Park B-J
(2016) Interruption of progerin-lamin A/C binding ameliorates Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome phenotype
The Journal of Clinical Investigation 126:3879–3893.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI84164
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Li W
2. Li Q
3. Jiao Y
4. Qin L
5. Ali R
6. Zhou J
7. Ferruzzi J
8. Kim RW
9. Geirsson A
10. Dietz HC
11. Offermanns S
12. Humphrey JD
13. Tellides G
(2014) Tgfbr2 disruption in postnatal smooth muscle impairs aortic wall homeostasis
Journal of Clinical Investigation 124:755–767.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI69942
- Google Scholar
(2021) Isoprenylcysteine carboxylmethyltransferase-based therapy for Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome
ACS Central Science 7:1300–1310.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acscentsci.0c01698
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Murtada SI
2. Kawamura Y
3. Caulk AW
4. Ahmadzadeh H
5. Mikush N
6. Zimmerman K
7. Kavanagh D
8. Weiss D
9. Latorre M
10. Zhuang ZW
11. Shadel GS
12. Braddock DT
13. Humphrey JD
(2020) Paradoxical aortic stiffening and subsequent cardiac dysfunction in hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
Journal of the Royal Society, Interface 17:20200066.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2020.0066
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2021) Differential biomechanical responses of elastic and muscular arteries to angiotensin II-induced hypertension
Journal of Biomechanics 119:110297.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiomech.2021.110297
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Olive M
2. Harten I
3. Mitchell R
4. Beers JK
5. Djabali K
6. Cao K
7. Erdos MR
8. Blair C
9. Funke B
10. Smoot L
11. Gerhard-Herman M
12. Machan JT
13. Kutys R
14. Virmani R
15. Collins FS
16. Wight TN
17. Nabel EG
18. Gordon LB
(2010) Cardiovascular pathology in Hutchinson-Gilford progeria: correlation with the vascular pathology of aging
Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 30:2301–2309.
https://doi.org/10.1161/ATVBAHA.110.209460
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Osorio FG
2. Navarro CL
3. Cadiñanos J
4. López-Mejía IC
5. Quirós PM
6. Bartoli C
7. Rivera J
8. Tazi J
9. Guzmán G
10. Varela I
11. Depetris D
12. de Carlos F
13. Cobo J
14. Andrés V
15. De Sandre-Giovannoli A
16. Freije JMP
17. Lévy N
18. López-Otín C
(2011) Splicing-directed therapy in a new mouse model of human accelerated aging
Science Translational Medicine 3:106ra107.
https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3002847
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2018) Cardiac abnormalities in patients with hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
JAMA Cardiology 3:326–334.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2017.5235
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Puttaraju M
2. Jackson M
3. Klein S
4. Shilo A
5. Bennett CF
6. Gordon L
7. Rigo F
8. Misteli T
(2021) Systematic screening identifies therapeutic antisense oligonucleotides for hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
Nature Medicine 27:526–535.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-021-01262-4
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Rush CJ
2. Berry C
3. Oldroyd KG
4. Rocchiccioli JP
5. Lindsay MM
6. Touyz RM
7. Murphy CL
8. Ford TJ
9. Sidik N
10. McEntegart MB
11. Lang NN
12. Jhund PS
13. Campbell RT
14. McMurray JJV
15. Petrie MC
(2021) Prevalence of coronary artery disease and coronary microvascular dysfunction in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction
JAMA Cardiology 6:1130–1143.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2021.1825
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2019) Development of a CRISPR/cas9-based therapy for hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
Nature Medicine 25:423–426.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-018-0338-6
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2001) Smooth muscle cell depletion and collagen types in progeric arteries
Cardiovascular Pathology 10:133–136.
https://doi.org/10.1016/s1054-8807(01)00069-2
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Townsend RR
2. Wilkinson IB
3. Schiffrin EL
4. Avolio AP
5. Chirinos JA
6. Cockcroft JR
7. Heffernan KS
8. Lakatta EG
9. McEniery CM
10. Mitchell GF
11. Najjar SS
12. Nichols WW
13. Urbina EM
14. Weber T
(2015) Recommendations for improving and standardizing vascular research on arterial stiffness
Hypertension 66:698–722.
https://doi.org/10.1161/HYP.0000000000000033
- Google Scholar
(2006) Aortic stiffness is associated with atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries in older adults: the Rotterdam study
Journal of Hypertension 24:2371–2376.
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.hjh.0000251896.62873.c4
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
1. Varga R
2. Eriksson M
3. Erdos MR
4. Olive M
5. Harten I
6. Kolodgie F
7. Capell BC
8. Cheng J
9. Faddah D
10. Perkins S
11. Avallone H
12. San H
13. Qu X
14. Ganesh S
15. Gordon LB
16. Virmani R
17. Wight TN
18. Nabel EG
19. Collins FS
(2006) Progressive vascular smooth muscle cell defects in a mouse model of hutchinson-gilford progeria syndrome
PNAS 103:3250–3255.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0600012103
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
(2013) Defective extracellular pyrophosphate metabolism promotes vascular calcification in a mouse model of Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome that is ameliorated on pyrophosphate treatment
Circulation 127:2442–2451.
https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.112.000571
- PubMed
- Google Scholar
Software
1. Yale Continuum Biomechanics Laboratory
(2023) Histological-analysis, version swh:1:rev:e3329071df52fa03a0b63791d82ffd1b3c3dee06
Software Heritage.

https://archive.softwareheritage.org/swh:1:dir:830f9158f705aec07153865ec216581ebc5f9940;origin=https://github.com/yale-cbl/histological-analysis;visit=swh:1:snp:0a4f766922e9a29ca82ade8f576b961ceec8cfca;anchor=swh:1:rev:e3329071df52fa03a0b63791d82ffd1b3c3dee06

Decision letter

Daniel Henrion

Reviewing Editor; University of Angers, France
Matthias Barton

Senior Editor; University of Zurich, Switzerland
Daniel Henrion

Reviewer; University of Angers, France

In the interests of transparency, eLife publishes the most substantive revision requests and the accompanying author responses.

Decision letter after peer review:

Thank you for submitting your article "Lonafarnib improves cardiovascular function and survival in a mouse model of Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome" for consideration by eLife. Your article has been reviewed by 3 peer reviewers, including Daniel Henrion as Reviewing Editor and Reviewer #3, and the evaluation has been overseen by a Senior Editor.

The reviewers have discussed their reviews with one another, and the Reviewing Editor has drafted this letter to help you prepare a revised submission.

Essential revisions:

1 – The dose of 450 mg/kg of lonafarnib is quite high in the light of the dose of other compounds or even the oral dose of lonafarnib approved for children. This should be discussed, since a possible limitation of the study is whether a dose closer to the clinically used in patients (ie, 7.5 mg/kg) is able to produce cardiovascular improvements in mice.

2 – Rapamycin did not improve the phenotype when added to lonafarnib. The effect of rapamycin alone should be shown, or rapamycin should be removed from this work. Furthermore, the rationale for the use of rapamycin should be better explained in the introduction.

3 – A group with lonafarnib administered to wild type mice is necessary for a better understanding of the effect of lonafarnib on body weight as well as on cardiac and arterial function and structure.

4 – The effect of lonafarnib on proteoglycans accumulation cannot be appreciated from the images shown in the corresponding figures. The technique used for normalization, analysis and the data presentation should be clearly detailed.

5 – The authors should provide more insight on the mechanism by which lonafarnib reduced proteoglycan accumulation.

6 – Considering the importance of the number of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in progeria (Cells 2020, 9, 656; Circulation. 2018, 138, 266; eLife 2020, 9, e54383) this parameter should be analysed more in depth. The cell composition of the vascular (aorta and mesenteric arteries) should be detailed in GG, WT and treated mice (SMCs and type of SMCs, endothelial cells and adventitial cells including immune cells). In this regard,

7 – Endothelium-dependent dilation should be analysed more in depth. The loss of both SMCs and ECs function suggests a more global effect of the disease on vascular cells. As lonafarnib prevented this loss of cellular function in mesenteric arteries, SMCs and endothelial function should be shown in the aorta as well.

8 – Arterial diameter is reduced in GG mice (aorta and mesenteric artery). As small arteries control tissues perfusion and pressure it is important to provide blood pressure values in the different groups of mice. A measurement of tissue perfusion (laser Doppler of the mouse feet for example) would also add a lot to the study.

9 – In page 9 (lines 257-260) the authors put in context the obtained results regarding survival with other treatments. However, there is one study that should be also incorporated, since 174 days are obtained in 50% survival extension after administration of an ICMT inhibitor (ACS Central Sci. 2021, 7, 8, 1300).

10 – Statistical analysis and number of mice used: The text and the analysis shown in figures do not always match. This should be corrected carefully. See the specific comment by reviewer 2.

11 – All the abbreviations should be defined (see in particular: PWV in page 4; ALZ and MOV in Figure 4).

12 – Number of animals and their age (age at the time of the experiments) must be given in each legend.

13 – The quality of the figure must be improved (for example: 1G and 1H, legend difficult to read)

14 – References should be listed in alphabetical order.

Reviewer #1 (Recommendations for the authors):

The objective of this work is to analyze the effect of administration of lonafarnib, the only FDA approved drug for treating progeria, on the main cardiovascular alterations that characterize the disease using a progeria mouse model. In particular, the authors describe that lonafarnib ameliorates aortic phenotype (in terms of PWC, proteoglycan composition and elasticity) and LV diastolic function. The methodology and the experiments carried out are appropriate, and the conclusions of the work are in general well supported by the data. The most significant result is that the reported data provide a molecular rationale in relation with improvements in specific cardiovascular parameters that explain the phenotypic benefits observed upon lonafarnib administration. All in sum, the findings reported in this work are of interest for those working in the area of progeria and other laminopathies and support the use of lonafarnib for treating progeria.

The conclusions of this paper are mostly well supported by data, but some aspects need to be clarified.

– There are some abbreviations that are specific to the area of cardiovascular research. They should be defined for a better understanding of the readership not specialized in the cardiovascular field (for example PWV in page 4; ALZ and MOV in Figure 4).

– The use of a dose of 450 mg/kg of lonafarnib seems quite high in the light of the dose of other compounds or even the oral dose of lonafarnib approved for children. As the authors attempt to support the use of lonafarnib in humans on the basis of the cardiovascular improvement observed in this study in mice, the dose should be discussed. The dose in humans is 150 mg per m2 of body surface. Considering 0,5 m2 of surface per 10 kg of body weight (https://www.ouh.nhs.uk/oxparc/professionals/documents/Body-surfaceareaCCLGChart1.pdf) a dose of 75 mg represent around 7.5 mg/kg. This is very far from the 450 mg/kg indicated in this paper. This should be discussed, since a possible limitation of the study is whether a dose more close to the clinically used in patients (ie, 7.5 mg/kg) is able to produce cardiovascular improvements in mice.

– Since no significant improvement in body mass is observed (line 117, page 4) it should be discussed whether lonafarnib administered to wild type mice affects to body weight.

– The paper indicates that lonafarnib improves aortic composition, in particular lowering accumulation of mural proteoglycans (line 142, page 5, and Figures 4B and 4C). It would be nice to mark/highlight in the corresponding figures the area or the specific zone in the image where these improvements can be appreciated.

– In relationship with the former result, is there any insight on the mechanism by which lonafarnib reduces proteoglycan accumulation?

– Considering the importance of the number of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in progeria (Cells 2020, 9, 656; Circulation. 2018, 138, 266; eLife 2020, 9, e54383) this parameter should be also analyzed.

– In page 9 (lines 257-260) the authors put in context the obtained results regarding survival with other treatments. However, there is one study that should be also incorporated, since 174 days are obtained in 50% survival extension after administration of an ICMT inhibitor (ACS Central Sci. 2021, 7, 8, 1300). This work should be also cited.

– References are difficult to find, they should be listed in alphabetical order.

Reviewer #2 (Recommendations for the authors):

This paper focuses on the effects of the drug Lonafarnib, which is a farnesyltransferase inhibitor used as a therapeutic for patients with Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) an accelerated aging disease characterized by premature death due to cardiovascular problems. Lonafarnib significantly increases lifespan, but it's effects on cardiac function have not been documented. The authors used an established mouse model for HGPS that carry the point mutation of the LMNA gene exhibiting severe cardiovascular disease and shortened life span. Homozygous G609G mice show progressive thoracic aorta structural stiffening and significant reduction in biomechanical function. Lonafarnib significantly improved survival, left ventricular diastolic function and descending thoracic aortic pulse-wave velocity, with lower accumulation of mural proteoglycans and calcification in the aorta. Studies also showed a moderate ability of Lonafarnib to prevent decline in vascoconstrictive and vasodilatory capacities of the muscular-type mesenteric artery. Finally, combined therapy with the MTOR inhibitor rapamycin was not beneficial, and even deleterious regarding the pulse wave velocity of the aorta. The authors conclude that Lonafarnib treatment can significantly improve both arterial structure and function to reduce pulse wave velocity and left ventricular diastolic function.

Strengths

This paper provides important information on Lonafarnib's effects as a therapeutic agent in HGPS. By maintaining the mouse model of HGPS on a specific gel diet, the authors were able to extend the lifespan of the mice, and thus the cardiovascular disease phenotype, without resorting to external parameters such as high-fat diet, which would have created a bias towards atherosclerosis and the metabolic syndrome. The paper is well written with the objectives stated clearly.

Weaknesses

A question that arises is with regards to the combination therapy (Figure 2, Table S1). There is no data provided on the HGPS mice treated with rapamycin alone, thus making it difficult to understand how the authors can determine the reasons underlying the absence or worsening of effects of both Lonafarnib and rapamycin. If this data is available, it should be included. If not, it is questionable if this data as it brings additional value to the paper. It would also be helpful to the reader to present the reasoning behind dual treatment with Ioanafarnib and rapamycin in the introduction.

There are some imprecise statements in the text in which the authors indicate changes in parameters, when in fact, the differences are not statistically significant. For example, lines 123-124 (Table 1) "Most dimensioned cardiac metrics, such as LV chamber volumes and stroke volume (SV), were lower in both untreated and lonafarnib-treated progeria mice…", when in fact it is not indicated as being statistically significant in Table 1. Also, in Figure 2F legend, it is indicated that lonafarnib improved cardioac output, when in the text, it is indicated as a trend toward improved cardiac output (line 129). The text should be reviewed carefully and corrected.

Figure 1. In Figure 1A, it would be helpful to include data on the WT littermates providing a reference to the change in structural stiffness as a function of age.

Figure 4. The authors report significantly decreased proteoglycan accumulation in the group that received lonafarnib. This is not evident based on the images. For the analysis, how did the authors normalize the values obtained, the amount of proteoglycan and calcification was relative to what parameter?

Reviewer #3 (Recommendations for the authors):

The authors have investigated the effect of lonafarnib, a farnesyltransferase inhibitor, in a mouse model of progeria. The treatment with lonafarnib extended lifespan in progeria mice, reduced arterial thickening, and improved arterial function in progeria mice. This treatment increases the lifespan of the mice and prevents, at least in part, the thickening, and the loss of contractility of the arteries using appropriate in vivo and in vitro tools. This study brings new information on the pathophysiology of progeria and on the mechanism of lonafarnib which improves arterial wall structure and contractility.

1 – The data shown in figure 1 need to be reinforced. Indeed, in GG mice the aorta becomes translucent whereas its thickness increases to more than 100µm. Such a tremendous change in structure requires a more in-depth analysis. It is important to show not only the degree of calcification (this is shown / alizarin red) but also the location of the cells in the wall (and the type of cells). Is there any smooth muscle left? Which phenotype do they have, and which other cells have eventually infiltrated the vascular wall if any (or the adventitia which is very thick in GG mice). Figure 4 shows a more limited thickening of the aortic wall. Indeed, Movat staining shows a relatively well-structured media and a thicker adventitia. This phenotype suggests a strong inflammatory response of the vascular wall which could explain the loss of contractility in GG mice. This needs to be analyzed more in depth.

2 – Contractility and dilation: The strong reduction in contractility in the aorta and in mesenteric arteries suggests a major SMC defect. In parallel, endothelium-mediated (Ach) dilation is also abolished in mesenteric arteries suggesting that endothelial cells (ECs) are also affected. Ach-dependent dilation should also be measured in the aorta. This loss of SMCs and ECs function suggests a more global effect of the disease on vascular cells. Interestingly, the treatment with lonafarnib prevents this loss of cellular function (and loss of cells?) in the mesenteric arteries. This is not shown in the aorta whereas this information seems essential. Indeed, it's important to have the reactivity data in figure 3 (as in figure 1 G, H and I + Ach).

3 – Arterial diameter: In both the aorta and the mesenteric artery, arterial diameter is severely reduced in GG mice. As small arteries control tissues perfusion and pressure it is important to provide the blood pressure values in the different groups of mice. In the mesenteric arteries the inward remodeling resembles that seen in hypertension as discussed by the authors. The authors should measure tissue perfusion (laser Doppler of the mouse feet for example).

In addition, an histological analysis of the myocardium is necessary to assess whether hypertrophy or excessive dilation occurs in GG mice with arterial thickening.

4 – Lonafarnib did not prevent this inward remodeling whereas it improved contractility and dilation in MA (how about the aorta?). Again, blood pressure and tissue perfusion are necessary to understand the effect of the treatment.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.82728.sa1

Author response

Essential revisions:

1 – The dose of 450 mg/kg of lonafarnib is quite high in the light of the dose of other compounds or even the oral dose of lonafarnib approved for children. This should be discussed, since a possible limitation of the study is whether a dose closer to the clinically used in patients (ie, 7.5 mg/kg) is able to produce cardiovascular improvements in mice.

Thank you for revealing that our description was not clear, probably because of a misplaced comma (now corrected, but also with a clearer description). The dose was 450 mg of lonafarnib per kg of food (not per kg of mouse body mass), now stated explicitly. Normal mice can eat up to 10% of their body mass per day, though the continued loss of body mass in progeria mice suggests lower levels of daily consumption. At the maximum expected level (10% of body mass per day), each progeria mouse could ingest 0.675 mg of lonafarnib per day, which would translate into 45 mg/kg per mouse maximum. At half that level, this would translate into 22.5 mg/kg, much closer to that stated above for children (7.5 mg/kg). This is now stated clearly.

Note, in addition, that we received the lonafarnib as an in-kind gift from the Progeria Research Foundation (PRF) under formal agreement and we used their recommended dosage, per their request (now noted). PRF is the international leader in directing progeria research and their opinion was valued, their request was respected.

Finally, we also now note (in Discussion) that additional doses as well as periods of treatment and ages of initiation of treatment would be important to evaluate in the future. As an example, we now include a lonafarnib treatment arm during which drug was given from P100 to P168 (in contrast to the originally and still reported P21 to P168, which yielded better outcomes). For completeness, we now report and compare both of these treatment arms.

2 – Rapamycin did not improve the phenotype when added to lonafarnib. The effect of rapamycin alone should be shown, or rapamycin should be removed from this work. Furthermore, the rationale for the use of rapamycin should be better explained in the introduction.

As the Reviewer may know, lonafarnib has shown benefits in progeria children but there are ongoing studies to try to identify combination therapies that improve outcomes further. One such study combines lonafarnib and a mTOR inhibitor. It was our goal, therefore, to test a combination therapy as well, noting that it will be unlikely that any future clinical trial will not include lonafarnib given the positive results to date. Indeed, within the formal agreement we received from PRF they state: “…clinical trials testing new potential medications for HGPS will involve at least one combination treatment arm, administering lonafarnib plus a new drug of interest. Therefore PRF suggests that researchers consider similar preclinical studies, with one arm testing combination treatment with lonafarnib plus new compound of interest.” Again, we respected this request and focused on lonafarnib + rapamycin. Because of the poor outcome, however, we obviously evaluated rapamycin alone – the results were similarly poor.

In an attempt to simplify the message of the initial paper, we had left out the set of data using rapamycin alone from P100 to P168. As requested, these data are now included as a survival curve. Given the poor survival outcomes, however, we did not perform complete cardiovascular assessments (indeed could not since most of the mice died prior to the study endpoint). Now noted.

3 – A group with lonafarnib administered to wild type mice is necessary for a better understanding of the effect of lonafarnib on body weight as well as on cardiac and arterial function and structure.

Here we disagree. There was no difference in body mass between the lonafarnib and non-lonafarnib treated progeria mice and thus no expectation that lonafarnib led to any further decrease in body mass. We did not consider lonafarnib treatment of wild-type mice.

4 – The effect of lonafarnib on proteoglycans accumulation cannot be appreciated from the images shown in the corresponding figures. The technique used for normalization, analysis and the data presentation should be clearly detailed.

Thank you for this important comment, we agree. We have since re-confirmed our method of quantification and had a second investigator not involved in the original study re-analyze the entire data set de novo, resulting in a new Figure with updated values, which are not different from those reported previously hence the prior conclusions remain. We feel that the visual appreciation of the effects of progeria and its treatment is much improved in this new figure.

5 – The authors should provide more insight on the mechanism by which lonafarnib reduced proteoglycan accumulation.

Despite an increasing data base on vascular changes in progeria, there is currently no well accepted mechanism by which proteoglycans accumulate in the large arteries in progeria (or why they don’t accumulate so dramatically in small arteries) and thus it is not possible to determine how lonafarnib affects this yet unknown mechanism. Our focus, rather, was on potential systemic effects on cardiac and large artery function, which have direct clinical relevance. Albeit not emphasized as much as it should have been, we now discuss the need for more attention to these mechanisms.

6 – Considering the importance of the number of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in progeria (Cells 2020, 9, 656; Circulation. 2018, 138, 266; eLife 2020, 9, e54383) this parameter should be analysed more in depth. The cell composition of the vascular (aorta and mesenteric arteries) should be detailed in GG, WT and treated mice (SMCs and type of SMCs, endothelial cells and adventitial cells including immune cells). In this regard,

We agree that extreme loss of vascular SMCs has been one of the most consistent observations in progeria studies of both patients and murine models. We now include in our new Figure (on medial cell density) data that are consistent with this observation: there was a measured 79% reduction in SMC area with progeria at P168 in the aorta, which was slightly less (67% reduction) with lonafarnib. We also show in a revised figure, however, that there was no recovery of SMC function in the aorta with lonafarnib treatment (previously simply stated, not shown in a figure) despite less SMC loss whereas there was significant recovery in SMC function in small arteries. Thank you for this comment for these are important clarifications.

Yes, it would be interesting to assess other cell types, but it appears (and largely confirmed at the 11^th International Progeria Workshop at Boston in Nov 2022) that SMCs are most important – it was their function that we focused on and thus evaluated, noting that we did assess endothelial function via Ach stimulation (see next point below).

7 – Endothelium-dependent dilation should be analysed more in depth. The loss of both SMCs and ECs function suggests a more global effect of the disease on vascular cells. As lonafarnib prevented this loss of cellular function in mesenteric arteries, SMCs and endothelial function should be shown in the aorta as well.

Traditional in vitro studies of endothelium-dependent dilatation require that the vessels be preconstricted (i.e., a vessel cannot dilate unless previously contracted). Thus, in the absence of vasoconstrictive capacity, one cannot assess effects of ECs on dilatation. We have revised / expanded our Figures contrasting SMC contraction / EC-dependent dilatation in large and small arteries, before and after lonafarnib treatment, while noting the experimental caveat regarding the inability of assessing functional vasodilation in the absence of prior vasoconstriction.

8 – Arterial diameter is reduced in GG mice (aorta and mesenteric artery). As small arteries control tissues perfusion and pressure it is important to provide blood pressure values in the different groups of mice. A measurement of tissue perfusion (laser Doppler of the mouse feet for example) would also add a lot to the study.

First, regarding the larger vessels, we previously found that the smaller diameters largely scale allometrically with the reduced body mass (as would be expected; Murtada et al., 2020), which is to say that smaller appears to be physiologically relevant – emphasizing the importance of not just sex- and age-sensitive analyses, but body mass-sensitive as well.

Regarding the smaller vessels, we agree that increased contractile function can alter tissue perfusion as well as affect the potential propagation of the pulse wave into distal tissues and organs. We routinely obtain blood pressures (non-invasive and invasive, using Millar catheters for mice) in healthy adult mice and attempted to obtain such pressures in the progeria mice. Given their small size and fragility, however, we were not able to collect consistent measurements of central blood pressure despite many attempts. This is now noted in the revision.

9 – In page 9 (lines 257-260) the authors put in context the obtained results regarding survival with other treatments. However, there is one study that should be also incorporated, since 174 days are obtained in 50% survival extension after administration of an ICMT inhibitor (ACS Central Sci. 2021, 7, 8, 1300).

Thank you. This omission has been corrected.

10 – Statistical analysis and number of mice used: The text and the analysis shown in figures do not always match. This should be corrected carefully. See the specific comment by reviewer 2.

We have checked, corrected, and expanded the study as needed. Numbers of mice in each group are shown correctly in each table.

11 – All the abbreviations should be defined (see in particular: PWV in page 4; ALZ and MOV in Figure 4).

Agreed and corrected.

12 – Number of animals and their age (age at the time of the experiments) must be given in each legend.

Agreed and corrected.

13 – The quality of the figure must be improved (for example: 1G and 1H, legend difficult to read)

Agreed and corrected.

14 – References should be listed in alphabetical order.

Corrected.

Reviewer #1 (Recommendations for the authors):

The objective of this work is to analyze the effect of administration of lonafarnib, the only FDA approved drug for treating progeria, on the main cardiovascular alterations that characterize the disease using a progeria mouse model. In particular, the authors describe that lonafarnib ameliorates aortic phenotype (in terms of PWC, proteoglycan composition and elasticity) and LV diastolic function. The methodology and the experiments carried out are appropriate, and the conclusions of the work are in general well supported by the data. The most significant result is that the reported data provide a molecular rationale in relation with improvements in specific cardiovascular parameters that explain the phenotypic benefits observed upon lonafarnib administration. All in sum, the findings reported in this work are of interest for those working in the area of progeria and other laminopathies and support the use of lonafarnib for treating progeria.

The conclusions of this paper are mostly well supported by data, but some aspects need to be clarified.

– There are some abbreviations that are specific to the area of cardiovascular research. They should be defined for a better understanding of the readership not specialized in the cardiovascular field (for example PWV in page 4; ALZ and MOV in Figure 4).

Agreed and corrected.

– The use of a dose of 450 mg/kg of lonafarnib seems quite high in the light of the dose of other compounds or even the oral dose of lonafarnib approved for children. As the authors attempt to support the use of lonafarnib in humans on the basis of the cardiovascular improvement observed in this study in mice, the dose should be discussed. The dose in humans is 150 mg per m2 of body surface. Considering 0,5 m2 of surface per 10 kg of body weight (https://www.ouh.nhs.uk/oxparc/professionals/documents/Body-surfaceareaCCLGChart1.pdf) a dose of 75 mg represent around 7.5 mg/kg. This is very far from the 450 mg/kg indicated in this paper. This should be discussed, since a possible limitation of the study is whether a dose more close to the clinically used in patients (ie, 7.5 mg/kg) is able to produce cardiovascular improvements in mice.

Thank you for revealing that our description was not clear, probably because of a misplaced comma (now corrected). The dose was 450 mg of lonafarnib per kg of food (not per kg of mouse body mass), now stated explicitly. Normal mice can eat up to 10% of their body mass per day, though the continued loss of body mass in progeria mice suggests lower levels of daily consumption. At the maximum expected level (10% of body mass per day), each progeria mouse could ingest 0.675 mg of lonafarnib per day, which would translate into 45 mg/kg per mouse maximum. At half that level, this would translate into 22.5 mg/kg, much closer to that stated above for children (7.5 mg/kg). This is now stated clearly.

– Since no significant improvement in body mass is observed (line 117, page 4) it should be discussed whether lonafarnib administered to wild type mice affects to body weight.

It would seem that studies of the effect of lonafarnib on body mass in wild-type mice would have been warranted if treated progeria mice had either increased or decreased body mass. Since there was no change in body mass in treated progeria mice, we did not feel that it was important to test this lack of an effect in wild-type mice.

– The paper indicates that lonafarnib improves aortic composition, in particular lowering accumulation of mural proteoglycans (line 142, page 5, and Figures 4B and 4C). It would be nice to mark/highlight in the corresponding figures the area or the specific zone in the image where these improvements can be appreciated.

We agree and now present a much improved and expanded new figure while placing the prior figure in the Supplement since no two vessels were identical. We trust that these changes address this important issue, thank you.

Note, in addition, that all assessments are based on validated custom software-based quantification of many sections (the software is available via github). We tried to show representative images, but there is considerable spatial variability across specimens. For this reason, we previously presented a novel computational model to examine potential effects of stocastically distributed PGs/GAGs (Murtada et al., 2020). We have revised the data and presentation and have tried to improve the current presentation.

– In relationship with the former result, is there any insight on the mechanism by which lonafarnib reduces proteoglycan accumulation?

Despite an increasing data base on vascular changes in progeria, there is currently no well accepted mechanism by which proteoglycans accumulate in the large arteries and thus it would be difficult to determine mechanism of improvement. Our focus was, rather, on potential systemic effects on heart and large artery function, which have more clinical relevance.

– Considering the importance of the number of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) in progeria (Cells 2020, 9, 656; Circulation. 2018, 138, 266; eLife 2020, 9, e54383) this parameter should be also analyzed.

Agreed and corrected; we now show in the revised figure 4 that medial cell mass decreased in the aorta with progeria and improved slightly with lonafarnib, yet most importantly there was no improvement in aortic vasoconstriction (now shown explicitly in a new figure) though there was improvement in the muscular artery. It is, of course, function that is most important.

– In page 9 (lines 257-260) the authors put in context the obtained results regarding survival with other treatments. However, there is one study that should be also incorporated, since 174 days are obtained in 50% survival extension after administration of an ICMT inhibitor (ACS Central Sci. 2021, 7, 8, 1300). This work should be also cited.

Agreed, this omission has been corrected.

– References are difficult to find, they should be listed in alphabetical order.

Agreed and corrected.

Reviewer #2 (Recommendations for the authors):

This paper focuses on the effects of the drug Lonafarnib, which is a farnesyltransferase inhibitor used as a therapeutic for patients with Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) an accelerated aging disease characterized by premature death due to cardiovascular problems. Lonafarnib significantly increases lifespan, but it's effects on cardiac function have not been documented. The authors used an established mouse model for HGPS that carry the point mutation of the LMNA gene exhibiting severe cardiovascular disease and shortened life span. Homozygous G609G mice show progressive thoracic aorta structural stiffening and significant reduction in biomechanical function. Lonafarnib significantly improved survival, left ventricular diastolic function and descending thoracic aortic pulse-wave velocity, with lower accumulation of mural proteoglycans and calcification in the aorta. Studies also showed a moderate ability of Lonafarnib to prevent decline in vascoconstrictive and vasodilatory capacities of the muscular-type mesenteric artery. Finally, combined therapy with the MTOR inhibitor rapamycin was not beneficial, and even deleterious regarding the pulse wave velocity of the aorta. The authors conclude that Lonafarnib treatment can significantly improve both arterial structure and function to reduce pulse wave velocity and left ventricular diastolic function.

Strengths

This paper provides important information on Lonafarnib's effects as a therapeutic agent in HGPS. By maintaining the mouse model of HGPS on a specific gel diet, the authors were able to extend the lifespan of the mice, and thus the cardiovascular disease phenotype, without resorting to external parameters such as high-fat diet, which would have created a bias towards atherosclerosis and the metabolic syndrome. The paper is well written with the objectives stated clearly.

Thank you.

Weaknesses

A question that arises is with regards to the combination therapy (Figure 2, Table S1). There is no data provided on the HGPS mice treated with rapamycin alone, thus making it difficult to understand how the authors can determine the reasons underlying the absence or worsening of effects of both Lonafarnib and rapamycin. If this data is available, it should be included. If not, it is questionable if this data as it brings additional value to the paper. It would also be helpful to the reader to present the reasoning behind dual treatment with Ioanafarnib and rapamycin in the introduction.

As the Reviewer likely knows, lonafarnib has shown benefits in progeria children but there are ongoing studies to try to identify combination therapies that improve outcomes further. One such study combines lonafarnib and an mTOR inhibitor. It was our goal, therefore, to test a combination therapy as well, noting that it will be unlikely that any future clinical trial will not include lonafarnib given the good results to date. Indeed, within the formal agreement we executed with the Progeria Research Foundtion (PRF) as part of their in-kind donation of lonafarnib they state: “…clinical trials testing new potential medications for HGPS will involve at least one combination treatment arm, administering lonafarnib plus a new drug of interest. Therefore PRF suggests that researchers consider similar preclinical studies, with one arm testing combination treatment with lonafarnib plus new compound of interest.” We respected this request and focused on lonafarnib + rapamycin. Because of the poor outcome, however, we obviously evaluated rapamycin alone – the results were similarly poor.

In an attempt to simplify the message of the initial paper, we had left out the set of data using rapamycin alone from P100 to P168. As requested, these data are now included as a survival curve. Given the poor outcomes, however, we did not perform complete cardiovascular assessments (indeed could not since most of the mice died prior to the study endpoint). Now noted.

There are some imprecise statements in the text in which the authors indicate changes in parameters, when in fact, the differences are not statistically significant. For example, lines 123-124 (Table 1) "Most dimensioned cardiac metrics, such as LV chamber volumes and stroke volume (SV), were lower in both untreated and lonafarnib-treated progeria mice…", when in fact it is not indicated as being statistically significant in Table 1. Also, in Figure 2F legend, it is indicated that lonafarnib improved cardioac output, when in the text, it is indicated as a trend toward improved cardiac output (line 129). The text should be reviewed carefully and corrected.

Thank you. We have tried to correct all inconsistencies and/or render the text precise. Regarding the latter, please note that we previously showed (Murtada et al., 2020) that calculated dimensioned cardiac metrics such as cardiac output and stroke volume and aortic metrics such as inner radius are statistically lower in progeria relative to wild-type controls, BUT these lower values are actually allometrically appropriate for the lower body mass (e.g., 15 g for progeria vs. 25-30 g for healthy wild-type), noting that allometric relations follow the nonlinear power-law form Y=bM^c where Y is any variable, M is body mass, and b and c are parameters. Hence, although it true to say “statistically lower” this would actually be misleading (since they are body mass appropriate, which is most often not appreciated), hence we have tried to avoid such situations and simply say lower (numerically). Note, too, that vascular metrics also depend on the values of pressure at which the metrics (e.g., stiffness) are evaluated, and they can differ when evaluated at group-specific versus common pressures. We report both in the Tables but prefer the common pressure comparison in the figures, which is now noted. Thank you for identifying these issues that would not be clear to most readers; they have now been addressed in the revision.

Figure 1. In Figure 1A, it would be helpful to include data on the WT littermates providing a reference to the change in structural stiffness as a function of age.

Agreed and added, though we only provide the WT data at P42 and P100 so as to not clutter the figure (after which the WT do not change for months – Murtada et al., 2021; Cavinato et al., 2021).

Figure 4. The authors report significantly decreased proteoglycan accumulation in the group that received lonafarnib. This is not evident based on the images. For the analysis, how did the authors normalize the values obtained, the amount of proteoglycan and calcification was relative to what parameter?

First, please note that our assessments are based on validated custom software-based quantification of many sections and we have found that the computer often detects changes that are difficult to visualize until guided by the section-dependent computation. We tried to show representative images, but there is considerable spatial variability across specimens. For this reason, we previously presented a novel computational model to examine potential biomechanical effects of stocastically distributed PGs/GAGs (Murtada et al., 2020). That said…

Thank you for this important comment, we agree. We have since re-confirmed our method of quantification and had a second investigator not involved in the original study re-analyze the entire data set de novo, resulting in a new Figure with updated values, which are not different from those reported previously hence the prior conclusions remain. We feel, however, that the visual appreciation of the effects of progeria and its treatment is much improved in this new figure.

Reviewer #3 (Recommendations for the authors):

The authors have investigated the effect of lonafarnib, a farnesyltransferase inhibitor, in a mouse model of progeria. The treatment with lonafarnib extended lifespan in progeria mice, reduced arterial thickening, and improved arterial function in progeria mice. This treatment increases the lifespan of the mice and prevents, at least in part, the thickening, and the loss of contractility of the arteries using appropriate in vivo and in vitro tools. This study brings new information on the pathophysiology of progeria and on the mechanism of lonafarnib which improves arterial wall structure and contractility.

1 – The data shown in figure 1 need to be reinforced. Indeed, in GG mice the aorta becomes translucent whereas its thickness increases to more than 100µm. Such a tremendous change in structure requires a more in-depth analysis. It is important to show not only the degree of calcification (this is shown / alizarin red) but also the location of the cells in the wall (and the type of cells). Is there any smooth muscle left? Which phenotype do they have, and which other cells have eventually infiltrated the vascular wall if any (or the adventitia which is very thick in GG mice). Figure 4 shows a more limited thickening of the aortic wall. Indeed, Movat staining shows a relatively well-structured media and a thicker adventitia. This phenotype suggests a strong inflammatory response of the vascular wall which could explain the loss of contractility in GG mice. This needs to be analyzed more in depth.

We have tried to reinforce the data in multiple ways. First, we have added to Figure 1A wild-type results at P42 to P100 for a direct comparison (which was previously found only in tabulated form in the supplemental table). Second, we completely reanalyzed all of our histological data (with an independent investigator not involved in the original study) and now provide a new Figure 4 that also shows whole histological cross-sections (not just portions) and shows Movat results for medial cell cytoplasm (new), medial collagen (new), medial elastin (improved), and medial PG/GAGs (improved). These representative images better reflect the results of the quantitation, also rechecked independently and found to be the same as originally reported.

Importantly, given that the extreme loss of vascular SMCs has been one of the most consistent observations in progeria studies of both patients and murine models, we now include in our new Figure data (on medial cell density) that are consistent with this observation. We also show in a revised Figure that there was no recovery of SMC function in the aorta with lonafarnib treatment (simply stated but not shown, before) despite less SMC loss whereas there was significant recovery in SMC function in small arteries. Thank you for this comment for these are important clarifications.

Yes, it would be interesting to assess all cell types, but it appears (and largely confirmed at the 11^th International Progeria Workshop at Boston in Nov 2022) that SMCs are most important – it was their function that we focused on and thus evaluated, noting that we also assessed endothelial cell function via Ach.

2 – Contractility and dilation: The strong reduction in contractility in the aorta and in mesenteric arteries suggests a major SMC defect. In parallel, endothelium-mediated (Ach) dilation is also abolished in mesenteric arteries suggesting that endothelial cells (ECs) are also affected. Ach-dependent dilation should also be measured in the aorta.

Now added in a revised figure. These are good comments, though note that a vessel cannot dilate ex vivo if it has not been pre-constricted, so loss of SMC contractility is definitive whereas loss of Ach-induced dilatation is not.

This loss of SMCs and ECs function suggests a more global effect of the disease on vascular cells. Interestingly, the treatment with lonafarnib prevents this loss of cellular function (and loss of cells?) in the mesenteric arteries. This is not shown in the aorta whereas this information seems essential. Indeed, it's important to have the reactivity data in figure 3 (as in figure 1 G, H and I + Ach).

Related to the above, now shown explicitly in addition to the prior brief comment in the text.

3 – Arterial diameter: In both the aorta and the mesenteric artery, arterial diameter is severely reduced in GG mice. As small arteries control tissues perfusion and pressure it is important to provide the blood pressure values in the different groups of mice. In the mesenteric arteries the inward remodeling resembles that seen in hypertension as discussed by the authors. The authors should measure tissue perfusion (laser Doppler of the mouse feet for example).

These are insightful comments. In this regard, however, please note that we previously showed (Murtada et al., 2020) that many cardiovascular quantities (e.g., aortic radius, LV mass, LV diameter, stroke volume, cardiac output) are “statistically lower” in progeria at P140 when assessed using standard statistics, BUT these lower values are actually allometrically appropriate for the lower body mass. Thus statistics based on age- (but not body mass-) matched mice can thus be misleading. There is, therefore, a need for caution when interpreting such data in growth compromised mice, which we try to do.

Nonetheless, as suggested by the Reviewer, it would be interesting to measure perfusion in different end-organs, but our focus was on cardiac function (the primary clinical diagnosis) and related changes in the aorta (with a comparison to a representative muscular artery) given all that we know about central arterial stiffening and cardiac dysfunction in natural aging.

We routinely measure central blood pressures using Millar catheters following our echo measurements, but these measurements were not successful in the progeria mice (so small and fragile, especially under anesthesia), hence these data were either unavailable or unreliable and are not reported.

In addition, an histological analysis of the myocardium is necessary to assess whether hypertrophy or excessive dilation occurs in GG mice with arterial thickening.

We (Murtada et al., 2020), and others, previously reported histological assessments of the myocardium (we at P140) and did not see any overt pathology consistent with the preserved ejection fraction (EF) and fractional shortening (FS). Given that we did not see any decrements in EF or FS at P168, we focused on measures of possible diastolic dysfunction and associated changes in central artery function.

4 – Lonafarnib did not prevent this inward remodeling whereas it improved contractility and dilation in MA (how about the aorta?). Again, blood pressure and tissue perfusion are necessary to understand the effect of the treatment.

Again, smaller diameters need not imply inward remodeling; we showed previously that multiple metrics scale allometrically (including smaller diameters for smaller mice as they should). As noted above, we were not successful in obtaining consistent/reliable blood pressure measurements in the progeria mice and thus focused on non-invasive echocardiographic metrics of function. We have added the lack of recovery of vasoactive function of the aorta (previously simply stated) in a revised figure.

https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.82728.sa2

Article and author information

Author details

Sae-Il Murtada

Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, United States

Contribution
Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing

Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Nicole Mikush

Translational Research Imaging Center, Yale University, New Haven, United States

Contribution
Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology

Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Mo Wang

Department of Surgery, Yale University, New Haven, United States

Contribution
Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology

Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Pengwei Ren

Department of Surgery, Yale University, New Haven, United States

Contribution
Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology

Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Yuki Kawamura

Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, United States

Contribution
Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology

Competing interests
No competing interests declared

"This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0003-2137-6464
Abhay B Ramachandra

Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, United States

Contribution
Data curation, Formal analysis, Methodology

Competing interests
No competing interests declared
David S Li

Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, United States

Contribution
Resources, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Writing – review and editing

Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Demetrios T Braddock

Department of Pathology, Yale University, New Haven, United States

Contribution
Resources, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology

Competing interests
DTB is an equity holder and receives research and consulting support from Inozyme Pharma, Inc. DTB is also an inventor on patents owned by Yale University that are unrelated to the current study, but can be viewed nonetheless at https://medicine.yale.edu/lab/braddock/intellectual_property/
George Tellides
1. Department of Surgery, Yale University, New Haven, United States
2. Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University, New Haven, United States
Contribution
Conceptualization, Resources, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – review and editing

Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Leslie B Gordon

Department of Pediatrics, Hasbro Children's Hospital and Warren Albert Medical School, Brown University, Providence, United States

Contribution
Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Project administration, Writing – review and editing

Competing interests
No competing interests declared
Jay D Humphrey
1. Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, United States
2. Vascular Biology and Therapeutics Program, Yale University, New Haven, United States
Contribution
Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Project administration, Writing – review and editing

For correspondence
jay.humphrey@yale.edu

Competing interests
No competing interests declared

"This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0003-1011-2025

Funding

National Heart Lung & Blood Institute (R01 HL105297)

Jay D Humphrey

National Institute on Aging (R21 AG067347)

Demetrios T Braddock

Inozyme Pharma

Demetrios T Braddock

The funders had no role in study design, data collection and interpretation, or the decision to submit the work for publication.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported, in part, by grants from the US National Institutes of Health (R01 HL105297, R21 AG067347) and Inozyme Pharma, Inc (to DTB). We also thank The Progeria Research Foundation (progeriaresearch.org) for the generous donation of lonafarnib. This work was presented on November 4, 2022 during the 11^th International Scientific Workshop of the Progeria Research Foundation in Boston.

Ethics

All live animal procedures were approved by the Yale University Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC: 2021-11508).

Senior Editor

Matthias Barton, University of Zurich, Switzerland

Reviewing Editor

Daniel Henrion, University of Angers, France

Reviewer

Daniel Henrion, University of Angers, France

Publication history

Preprint posted: December 19, 2021 (view preprint)
Received: August 16, 2022
Accepted: March 9, 2023
Version of Record published: March 17, 2023 (version 1)

Copyright

This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use and redistribution provided that the original author and source are credited.