Dengue virus (DENV) is a member of the Flavivirus genus and is a major global public health threat, with four major serotypes of DENV found worldwide. Dengue causes ~400 million infections each year, of which ~20% of cases present clinically, a subset of which may progress to severe dengue hemorrhagic fever/dengue shock syndrome (DHF/DSS) (Bhatt et al., 2013; Brady et al., 2012). DENV is transmitted through Aedes mosquito vectors, and globalization and global warming are increasing the endemic range of dengue worldwide (Ebi and Nealon, 2016; Messina et al., 2019). The pathogenesis of dengue is complex as first-time infections are rarely severe and lead to serotype-specific immunity. However, reinfection with a different serotype increases the risk of developing DHF/DSS (Halstead, 1988). This is thought to be due to the phenomenon of antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), in which poorly neutralizing cross-reactive (CR) antibodies (Abs) lead to enhanced viral uptake and infection of unique cell populations in an Fcγ-receptor-mediated manner (Katzelnick et al., 2017).

ADE remains a major challenge for DENV vaccine development (Rey et al., 2018). The leading DENV vaccine platforms in clinical testing are tetravalent live-attenuated virus mixtures of all four serotypes. However, creating formulations that elicit a balanced response has proven challenging (Rabaa et al., 2017). Additionally, lab-grown strains differ from patient-derived DENVs in both maturation status and antigenicity (Raut et al., 2019). In particular, Abs targeting the fusion loop (FL) have been reported to neutralize lab and patient strains with differing strengths and have been observed to facilitate Fcγ-receptor uptake in vitro and therefore ADE (Lai et al., 2013; Beltramello et al., 2010; Costin et al., 2013). Currently, there is a single FDA-approved DENV vaccine, Dengvaxia. However, it is only approved for use in individuals aged 9–16 with previous DENV infection living in endemic areas and is contraindicated for use in naïve individuals and younger children. In naïve children, vaccination stimulated non-neutralizing CR Abs that increased the risk of severe disease after DENV infection (Wilder-Smith, 2019; Anonymous, 2019). Other DENV vaccines have been tested or are currently undergoing clinical trial, but thus far none have been approved for use in the United States (Izmirly et al., 2020). The vaccine Qdenga has been approved in the European Union, Indonesia, and Brazil, although vaccine efficacy in adults, naïve individuals, and with all serotypes has not yet been shown (Angelin et al., 2023).

The DENV FL is located in Envelope (E) protein domain II (EDII) and is involved in monomer–monomer contacts with EDIII (Modis et al., 2004). During the DENV infection cycle, low pH triggers a conformational change in the E protein (Klein et al., 2013). The structure of the virion rearranges, and individual monomers form a trimer with all three FLs in the same orientation, ready to initiate membrane fusion (Modis et al., 2004; Klein et al., 2013). The core FL motif (DRGWGNGCGLFGK, AA 98–110) is highly conserved, with 100% amino acid conservation in all DENV serotypes and other mosquito-borne flaviviruses, including yellow fever virus (YFV), Zika virus (ZIKV), West Nile virus (WNV), Kunjin virus (KUNV), Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV), Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), Usutu virus (USUV), and Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV; Figure 1A). Although the extreme conservation and critical role in entry have led to it being considered difficult to alter the antigenic epitope by changing more than one amino acid of the FL, we successfully tested the hypothesis that massively parallel-directed evolution could produce viable DENV FL mutants that were still capable of fusion and entry, while altering the antigenic footprint. The FL mutations, in combination with optimized prM cleavage site mutations, ablate neutralization by the prM- and FL-Abs, retain sensitivity to other protective Abs, and provide a novel vaccine strategy for DENV.

Figure 1

Download asset Open asset

To engineer a virus with a novel antigenic footprint at the FL, we targeted the core conserved FL motif. We generated two different saturation mutagenesis libraries, each with five randomized amino acids: DRGXGXGXXXFGK (Library 1; AA 101, 103, 105–107) and DRGXXXXXGLFGK (Library 2 AA 101–105). Library 1 was designed to mutate known residues targeted by FL mAbs while Library 2 focused on a continuous linear peptide that is the epitope for FL-Abs to maximally alter antigenicity (Smith et al., 2013). Saturation mutagenesis plasmid libraries were used to produce viral libraries in either C6/36 (Aedes albopictus mosquito) or Vero 81 (African green monkey) cells and passaged three times in their respective cell types. Following directed evolution, viral genomes were extracted and subjected to deep sequencing to identify surviving and enriched variants (Figure 1B). Due to the high level of conservation, it was not surprising that most mutational combinations failed to yield viable progeny. In fact, evolutions carried out on Library 2 only yielded wildtype sequences. For Library 1, wildtype sequences dominated in Vero 81-evolved libraries. However, a novel variant emerged in C6/36 cells with two amino acid changes: DRGWGSGCLLFGK. The major variant comprised ~95% of the population, while the next most populous variant (DRGWGSGCWLFGK) comprised only 0.25% (Figure 1C). Bulk Sanger sequencing revealed an additional Env-T171A mutation outside of the FL region. Residues W101, C105, and L107 were preserved in our final sequence, supporting the importance of these residues (Modis et al., 2004). When modeled on the pre-fusion DENV2 structure, the N103S and G106L mutations are located at the interface with the neighboring monomer EDIII domain, protected from the aqueous environment. In the post-fusion form, the two residues are located between W101 and F108 and form the bowl concavity above the chlorine ion in the post-fusion trimer (Figure 1D). We used reverse genetics to re-derive the FL N103S/G106L/T171A mutant, which we term D2-FL. As enhancing Abs also target prM (Rodenhuis-Zybert et al., 2010), we also created a mature version of D2-FL termed D2-FLM, containing both the evolved FL motif and our previously published evolved prM furin cleavage site, which results in a more mature virion like those found in infected patients (Figure 1E; Raut et al., 2019; Tse et al., 2022).

We performed growth curves comparing DENV2, D2-FL, and D2-FLM in both C6/36 and Vero 81 cells. In C6/36 cells, the growth of all three viruses was comparable, reaching high titers of 10⁶–10⁷ FFU/mL. However, in Vero 81 cells, both FL mutant viruses were highly attenuated, with a 2–2.5 log reduction in titer (Figure 2A). The species-specific phenotype in culture involved a change from insect to mammalian cells, as well as a change in growth temperature. To investigate whether the mutant viruses were more unstable at higher temperatures, we performed a thermostability assay, comparing viruses incubated at temperatures ranging from 4 to 55°C before infection. The three viruses had comparable thermostabilities, indicating that this does not explain the attenuation of the FL mutants (Figure 2B). Because the D2-FLM virus contains mutations that increase prM cleavage frequency, we also assayed the maturation status of the three viruses by western blot. D2-FL had a comparable prM:E ratio to the isogenic wildtype DENV2 (DV2-WT), while, as expected, D2-FLM had a reduced prM:E ratio, indicating a higher degree of maturation (Figure 2C).

Figure 2

Download asset Open asset

Figure 2—source data 1

Raw gel images of the western blot shown in Figure 2C.

https://cdn.elifesciences.org/articles/87555/elife-87555-fig2-data1-v1.zip

Download elife-87555-fig2-data1-v1.zip

Next, we characterized the ability of Abs targeting the FL to recognize DV2-WT, D2-FL, and D2-FLM with a panel of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Importantly, D2-FL and D2-FLM were resistant to mAbs targeting the FL. Neutralization by 1M7 is reduced by ~2 logs in both variants, 1N5 neutralization is reduced by ~1 log for D2-FL and reduced to background levels for D2-FLM, and no neutralization was observed for 1L6 or 4G2 for either variant (Figure 3A; Smith et al., 2013). Focusing on the D2-FLM virus containing both evolved motifs, we then characterized the antigenicity of the whole virion with a panel of mAbs. As expected, D2-FLM was unable to be neutralized by the prM Abs 1E16 and 5M22; the Ab 2H2 does not neutralize either DV2-WT or D2-FLM (Figure 3B). For Abs targeting epitopes in non-mutated regions, including the ED1 and EDE epitopes that target EDII and EDIII, FRNT₅₀ values were generally comparable, although EDE1-C10 shows a moderate but statistically significant reduction between DV2-WT and D2-FLM, indicating that the overall virion structural integrity was intact (Figure 3B).

Figure 3

Download asset Open asset

Next, we analyzed neutralization of the D2-FLM virus using serum derived from convalescent humans and experimentally infected rhesus macaque non-human primates (NHPs). Overall, we tested serum from three different cohorts with a total of 6 humans and 9 NHPs at different time points with a total of 27 samples. In the first cohort (NHP infected with 1 × 10⁶ FFU Vero-grown virus via subcutaneous [SC] injection) (Young et al., 2023), serum from homotypic DENV2-infected NHPs (n = 3) did not display a difference in neutralization between DV2-WT, D2-FL, and D2-FLM, confirming that prM and FL epitopes are not significant contributors to the homotypic type-specific (TS) neutralizing Ab response in primates (Figure 3C). In two NHPs infected with DENV4, strong neutralization potency (FRNT₅₀ between 1:100 and 1:1000) was demonstrated against DV2-WT (Figure 3C). Heterologous cross-neutralization was significantly reduced to background levels (FRNT₅₀ < 1:40) against the D2-FLM virus at 90 days post-infection (dpi). Neutralization observed against D2-FL, in general, fell between DV2-WT and D2-FLM. NHP 0Y0 displayed little difference in neutralization between D2-FL and D2-FLM, suggesting that FL Abs were more prominent in this animal. Interestingly, in animal 3Z6, at 20 dpi, neutralization against DENV-FL was comparable to DV2-WT, while D2-FLM was greatly reduced, indicating that Abs in the sera targeting the immature virion formed a large portion of the CR response. These data suggest that after a single infection many of the CR Ab responses target prM and the FL and the reliance on these Abs for heterotypic neutralization increases over time (Figure 3C).

In the second cohort (NHPs infected with 5 × 10⁵ FFU C6/36-grown virus via SC injection) and the third cohort (human serum tested positive by ELISA for homotypic DENV infection) (Lopez et al., 2021), most of the serum (18/24) did not cross-neutralize DV2-WT (FRNT₅₀ < 1:40), leading to inconclusive result in determining the CR-Ab population in these sera (Table 1). The difference between the three cohorts also highlights the heterogeneity of Ab composition in humans and NHPs after DENV exposure. Nevertheless, the collection of FL, mature, and FL-mature variants provides new opportunity to delineate antibody composition in complex polyclonal serum from DENV natural infection and vaccination.

Mechanistic understanding of vaccine protection and identification of correlates of protection are immensely important for DENV vaccine development. The dual protective and enhancing properties of DENV Abs create major challenges for dissecting the role of various Ab populations in disease protection. Cross-reactive weakly neutralizing prM- and FL-Abs are often immunodominant after primary DENV infection (Lai et al., 2013; Smith et al., 2012; Oliphant et al., 2006; Lai et al., 2008; Dejnirattisai et al., 2010), and can lead to overestimation of the levels of heterotypic protection in traditional neutralization assays. Since these same antibodies are also associated with ADE (Rodenhuis-Zybert et al., 2010), inaccurate conclusions could have dire consequences if protection in vitro translates to the enhancement of disease in human vaccinees. Unfortunately, Ab profiling in polyclonal serum is mainly performed by ELISA, and a neutralization assay that can discriminate Abs does not exist. The D2-FLM variant is not neutralized by FL- and prM-mAbs and appears insensitive to neutralization by these Abs in polyclonal serum. Of note, EDE1-C10 neutralization potency was also reduced in our FL-M variant, further indicating our mutations are affecting the tip of the EDII region that partially overlaps with the EDE1 epitope (Sharma et al., 2021). In combination with other chimeric DENVs (Andrade et al., 2019; Young et al., 2020; Gallichotte et al., 2015), D2-FLM provides a reagent to distinguish between TS, protective CR (e.g. E dimer epitope [EDE]) (Barba-Spaeth et al., 2016; Dejnirattisai et al., 2015) and ADE-prone CR (e.g. FL and prM) (Dejnirattisai et al., 2010) Ab subclasses in neutralization assays after infection and vaccination.

Due to the ADE properties of DENV Abs, studies to understand and eliminate ADE phenotype are under active investigation. For example, mAbs can be engineered to eliminate binding to the Fcγ receptor, abolishing ADE (Kotaki et al., 2021). While this methodology holds potential for Ab therapeutic development and passive immunization strategies, it is not relevant for vaccination. As FL and prM targeting Abs are the major species demonstrated to cause ADE in vitro, we and others hypothesized that these Abs are responsible for ADE-driven negative outcomes after primary infection and vaccination (Lai et al., 2013; Beltramello et al., 2010; Costin et al., 2013; de Alwis et al., 2014). We propose that genetic ablation of the FL and prM epitopes in vaccine strains will minimize the production of these subclasses of Abs responsible for undesirable vaccine responses. Indeed, covalently locked E-dimers and E-dimers with FL mutations have been engineered as potential subunit vaccines that reduce the availability of the FL, thereby reducing the production of FL Abs (Rouvinski et al., 2017; Rockstroh et al., 2015; Slon-Campos et al., 2019; Metz et al., 2017). DENV subunit vaccines are an area of active study (Kudlacek et al., 2021); however, monomer/dimer subunits can also expose additional, interior-facing epitopes not normally exposed to the cell. Furthermore, dimer subunits are not a complete representation of the DENV virion, which presents other structurally important interfaces such as the threefold and fivefold symmetries. Concerns about balanced immunity to all four serotypes also apply to subunit vaccine platforms. Given the complexity of the immune response to DENV, live virus vaccine platforms have thus far been more successful. However, the FL is strongly mutationally intolerant. Previous reported mutations in the FL are mainly derived from experimental evolution using FL-Abs to select for escape mutant or by deep mutational scanning (DMS) of the Env protein for Ab epitope mapping. Mutations in the FL epitope were observed in a DENV2-NGC-V2 (G106V) (Goncalvez et al., 2004), attenuated JEV vaccine strain SA14-14-2 (L107F) (Gromowski et al., 2015), and attenuated WNV-NY99 (L107F) (Zhang et al., 2006). While most of the mutations, including the double mutations reported here lead to attenuation of the virus, a recent DMS study showed that Zika-G106A has no observable impact on viral fitness (Chambers et al., 2018). Interestingly, we also recovered a mutation G106L, suggesting that positions 103, 106, and 107 are tolerable FL positions for mutation in mosquito-borne flavivirus. On the other hand, tick-borne flaviviruses, no known vector flaviviruses, and invertebrate-specific flaviviruses show a more diverse FL composition. The inflexibility of mosquito-borne flaviviruses might be due to the evolutionary constraint of the virus to switch between mosquito and vertebrate hosts. Using directed evolution, we successfully generated our D2-FLM variant that combines viability with the desired Ab responses. Therefore, the D2-FLM variant is a novel candidate for a vaccine strain, which presents all the native structures and complex symmetries of DENV necessary for T-cell-mediated responses and which can elicit more optimal protective Ab responses (Tian et al., 2019; Elong Ngono and Shresta, 2019; Waickman et al., 2019).

Other considerations of high importance when designing a live DENV vaccine include strain selection and serotype balance (Gallichotte et al., 2018). In the current study, we used DENV2 S16803, a prototype for DENV2 (Halstead and Marchette, 2003). However, S16803 was isolated several decades ago, and it may be beneficial to utilize more contemporaneous strains (Rabaa et al., 2017; Juraska et al., 2018). Work is currently ongoing to demonstrate the portability of the evolved FL motif on additional DENV2 strains and other serotypes, which is essential for tetravalent vaccine production. D2-FLM was highly attenuated in Vero cells, creating a challenge for vaccine production. Therefore, further adaptation of this strain to grow efficiently in mammalian cells while retaining its antigenic properties is needed. We have tested a panel of FL-Abs; however, we cannot exclude the possibility that other FL-Abs may not be affected by N103S and G106L. Our study confirmed that saturation mutagenesis could generate mutants with multiple amino acid changes, and we are currently using D2-FLM as backbone to iteratively evolve additional mutations in FL to further vary the FL antigenic epitope. Taken together, the FLM variant holds new possibilities for a new generation of DENV vaccines, as well as a platform to readily measure TS and CR ADE-type responses and thereby assess the true protective potential of DENV vaccine trials and safeguard approval of DENV vaccines for human use.

Sequencing data have been deposited in SRA under accession code PRJNA947985. Code used for analysis can be found on the Tse Lab GitHub site (https://github.com/TseLabVirology/Saturation-Mutagenesis-Pipeline copy archived at Meganck, 2022).

1. 1. Meganck RM
   2. Zhu D
   3. Dong S
   4. Snoderly-Foster LJ
   5. Dalben YR
   6. Thiono D
   7. White LJ
   8. DeSilva AM
   9. Baric RS
   10. Tse LV

   (2023) NCBI BioProject

   ID PRJNA947985. Evolution of a Functionally Intact but Antigenically Distinct DENV Fusion Loop.

   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/bioproject/PRJNA947985

1. 1. Andrade DV
   2. Warnes C
   3. Young E
   4. Katzelnick LC
   5. Balmaseda A
   6. de Silva AM
   7. Baric RS
   8. Harris E

   (2019) Tracking the polyclonal neutralizing antibody response to a dengue virus serotype 1 type-specific epitope across two populations in Asia and the Americas

   Scientific Reports 9:16258.

   https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-52511-z

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
2. 1. Angelin M
   2. Sjölin J
   3. Kahn F
   4. Ljunghill Hedberg A
   5. Rosdahl A
   6. Skorup P
   7. Werner S
   8. Woxenius S
   9. Askling HH

   (2023) Qdenga - A promising dengue fever vaccine; can it be recommended to non-immune travelers?

   Travel Medicine and Infectious Disease 54:102598.

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2023.102598

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
3. 1. Anonymous

   (2019) Dengue vaccine: WHO position paper, September 2018 – Recommendations

   Vaccine 37:4848–4849.

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.09.063

   • Google Scholar
4. 1. Barba-Spaeth G
   2. Dejnirattisai W
   3. Rouvinski A
   4. Vaney M-C
   5. Medits I
   6. Sharma A
   7. Simon-Lorière E
   8. Sakuntabhai A
   9. Cao-Lormeau V-M
   10. Haouz A
   11. England P
   12. Stiasny K
   13. Mongkolsapaya J
   14. Heinz FX
   15. Screaton GR
   16. Rey FA

   (2016) Structural basis of potent Zika-dengue virus antibody cross-neutralization

   Nature 536:48–53.

   https://doi.org/10.1038/nature18938

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
5. 1. Beltramello M
   2. Williams KL
   3. Simmons CP
   4. Macagno A
   5. Simonelli L
   6. Quyen NTH
   7. Sukupolvi-Petty S
   8. Navarro-Sanchez E
   9. Young PR
   10. de Silva AM
   11. Rey FA
   12. Varani L
   13. Whitehead SS
   14. Diamond MS
   15. Harris E
   16. Lanzavecchia A
   17. Sallusto F

   (2010) The human immune response to Dengue virus is dominated by highly cross-reactive antibodies endowed with neutralizing and enhancing activity

   Cell Host & Microbe 8:271–283.

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2010.08.007

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
6. 1. Bhatt S
   2. Gething PW
   3. Brady OJ
   4. Messina JP
   5. Farlow AW
   6. Moyes CL
   7. Drake JM
   8. Brownstein JS
   9. Hoen AG
   10. Sankoh O
   11. Myers MF
   12. George DB
   13. Jaenisch T
   14. Wint GRW
   15. Simmons CP
   16. Scott TW
   17. Farrar JJ
   18. Hay SI

   (2013) The global distribution and burden of dengue

   Nature 496:504–507.

   https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12060

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
7. 1. Brady OJ
   2. Gething PW
   3. Bhatt S
   4. Messina JP
   5. Brownstein JS
   6. Hoen AG
   7. Moyes CL
   8. Farlow AW
   9. Scott TW
   10. Hay SI
   11. Reithinger R

   (2012) Refining the global spatial limits of dengue virus transmission by evidence-based consensus

   PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6:e1760.

   https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001760

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
8. 1. Chambers MT
   2. Schwarz MC
   3. Sourisseau M
   4. Gray ES
   5. Evans MJ

   (2018) Probing zika virus neutralization determinants with glycoprotein mutants bearing linear epitope insertions

   Journal of Virology 92:e00505-18.

   https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00505-18

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
9. 1. Costin JM
   2. Zaitseva E
   3. Kahle KM
   4. Nicholson CO
   5. Rowe DK
   6. Graham AS
   7. Bazzone LE
   8. Hogancamp G
   9. Figueroa Sierra M
   10. Fong RH
   11. Yang S-T
   12. Lin L
   13. Robinson JE
   14. Doranz BJ
   15. Chernomordik LV
   16. Michael SF
   17. Schieffelin JS
   18. Isern S

   (2013) Mechanistic study of broadly neutralizing human monoclonal antibodies against dengue virus that target the fusion loop

   Journal of Virology 87:52–66.

   https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02273-12

   • PubMed
   • Google Scholar
10. 1. de Alwis R
    2. Williams KL
    3. Schmid MA
    4. Lai CY
    5. Patel B
    6. Smith SA
    7. Crowe JE
    8. Wang WK
    9. Harris E
    10. de Silva AM

    (2014) Dengue viruses are enhanced by distinct populations of serotype cross-reactive antibodies in human immune sera

    PLOS Pathogens 10:e1004386.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004386

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
11. 1. Dejnirattisai W
    2. Jumnainsong A
    3. Onsirisakul N
    4. Fitton P
    5. Vasanawathana S
    6. Limpitikul W
    7. Puttikhunt C
    8. Edwards C
    9. Duangchinda T
    10. Supasa S
    11. Chawansuntati K
    12. Malasit P
    13. Mongkolsapaya J
    14. Screaton G

    (2010) Cross-reacting antibodies enhance dengue virus infection in humans

    Science 328:745–748.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1185181

    • Google Scholar
12. 1. Dejnirattisai W
    2. Wongwiwat W
    3. Supasa S
    4. Zhang X
    5. Dai X
    6. Rouvinski A
    7. Jumnainsong A
    8. Edwards C
    9. Quyen NTH
    10. Duangchinda T
    11. Grimes JM
    12. Tsai W-Y
    13. Lai C-Y
    14. Wang W-K
    15. Malasit P
    16. Farrar J
    17. Simmons CP
    18. Zhou ZH
    19. Rey FA
    20. Mongkolsapaya J
    21. Screaton GR

    (2015) A new class of highly potent, broadly neutralizing antibodies isolated from viremic patients infected with dengue virus

    Nature Immunology 16:170–177.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/ni.3058

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
13. 1. Ebi KL
    2. Nealon J

    (2016) Dengue in a changing climate

    Environmental Research 151:115–123.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.07.026

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
14. 1. Elong Ngono A
    2. Shresta S

    (2019) Cross-reactive t cell immunity to dengue and zika viruses: new insights into vaccine development

    Frontiers in Immunology 10:1316.

    https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.01316

    • Google Scholar
15. 1. Gallichotte EN
    2. Widman DG
    3. Yount BL
    4. Wahala WM
    5. Durbin A
    6. Whitehead S
    7. Sariol CA
    8. Crowe JE Jr
    9. de Silva AM
    10. Baric RS

    (2015) A new quaternary structure epitope on dengue virus serotype 2 is the target of durable type-specific neutralizing antibodies

    mBio 6:e01461-15.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.01461-15

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
16. 1. Gallichotte EN
    2. Baric TJ
    3. Nivarthi U
    4. Delacruz MJ
    5. Graham R
    6. Widman DG
    7. Yount BL
    8. Durbin AP
    9. Whitehead SS
    10. de Silva AM
    11. Baric RS

    (2018) Genetic variation between dengue virus type 4 strains impacts human antibody binding and neutralization

    Cell Reports 25:1214–1224.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2018.10.006

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
17. 1. Goncalvez AP
    2. Purcell RH
    3. Lai CJ

    (2004) Epitope determinants of a chimpanzee Fab antibody that efficiently cross-neutralizes dengue type 1 and type 2 viruses map to inside and in close proximity to fusion loop of the dengue type 2 virus envelope glycoprotein

    Journal of Virology 78:12919–12928.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.78.23.12919-12928.2004

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
18. 1. Gromowski GD
    2. Firestone CY
    3. Whitehead SS

    (2015) Genetic determinants of japanese encephalitis virus vaccine strain SA14-14-2 that govern attenuation of virulence in mice

    Journal of Virology 89:6328–6337.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00219-15

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
19. 1. Halstead SB

    (1988) Pathogenesis of dengue: challenges to molecular biology

    Science 239:476–481.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3277268

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
20. 1. Halstead SB
    2. Marchette NJ

    (2003) Biologic properties of dengue viruses following serial passage in primary dog kidney cells: studies at the University of Hawaii

    The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 69:5–11.

    https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2003.69.6_suppl.0690005

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
21. 1. Izmirly AM
    2. Alturki SO
    3. Alturki SO
    4. Connors J
    5. Haddad EK

    (2020) Challenges in dengue vaccines development: pre-existing infections and cross-reactivity

    Frontiers in Immunology 11:1055.

    https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01055

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
22. 1. Juraska M
    2. Magaret CA
    3. Shao J
    4. Carpp LN
    5. Fiore-Gartland AJ
    6. Benkeser D
    7. Girerd-Chambaz Y
    8. Langevin E
    9. Frago C
    10. Guy B
    11. Jackson N
    12. Duong Thi Hue K
    13. Simmons CP
    14. Edlefsen PT
    15. Gilbert PB

    (2018) Viral genetic diversity and protective efficacy of a tetravalent dengue vaccine in two phase 3 trials

    PNAS 115:E8378–E8387.

    https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1714250115

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
23. 1. Katzelnick LC
    2. Gresh L
    3. Halloran ME
    4. Mercado JC
    5. Kuan G
    6. Gordon A
    7. Balmaseda A
    8. Harris E

    (2017) Antibody-dependent enhancement of severe dengue disease in humans

    Science 358:929–932.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan6836

    • Google Scholar
24. 1. Klein DE
    2. Choi JL
    3. Harrison SC

    (2013) Structure of a dengue virus envelope protein late-stage fusion intermediate

    Journal of Virology 87:2287–2293.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.02957-12

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
25. 1. Kotaki T
    2. Kurosu T
    3. Grinyo-Escuer A
    4. Davidson E
    5. Churrotin S
    6. Okabayashi T
    7. Puiprom O
    8. Mulyatno KC
    9. Sucipto TH
    10. Doranz BJ
    11. Ono K-I
    12. Soegijanto S
    13. Kameoka M

    (2021) An affinity-matured human monoclonal antibody targeting fusion loop epitope of dengue virus with in vivo therapeutic potency

    Scientific Reports 11:12987.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-92403-9

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
26. 1. Kudlacek ST
    2. Metz S
    3. Thiono D
    4. Payne AM
    5. Phan TTN
    6. Tian S
    7. Forsberg LJ
    8. Maguire J
    9. Seim I
    10. Zhang S
    11. Tripathy A
    12. Harrison J
    13. Nicely NI
    14. Soman S
    15. McCracken MK
    16. Gromowski GD
    17. Jarman RG
    18. Premkumar L
    19. de Silva AM
    20. Kuhlman B

    (2021) Designed, highly expressing, thermostable dengue virus 2 envelope protein dimers elicit quaternary epitope antibodies

    Science Advances 7:eabg4084.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.abg4084

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
27. 1. Lai C-Y
    2. Tsai W-Y
    3. Lin S-R
    4. Kao C-L
    5. Hu H-P
    6. King C-C
    7. Wu H-C
    8. Chang G-J
    9. Wang W-K

    (2008) Antibodies to envelope glycoprotein of dengue virus during the natural course of infection are predominantly cross-reactive and recognize epitopes containing highly conserved residues at the fusion loop of domain II

    Journal of Virology 82:6631–6643.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.00316-08

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
28. 1. Lai C-Y
    2. Williams KL
    3. Wu Y-C
    4. Knight S
    5. Balmaseda A
    6. Harris E
    7. Wang W-K

    (2013) Analysis of cross-reactive antibodies recognizing the fusion loop of envelope protein and correlation with neutralizing antibody titers in Nicaraguan dengue cases

    PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 7:e2451.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002451

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
29. 1. Lopez AL
    2. Adams C
    3. Ylade M
    4. Jadi R
    5. Daag JV
    6. Molloy CT
    7. Agrupis KA
    8. Kim DR
    9. Silva MW
    10. Yoon I-K
    11. White L
    12. Deen J
    13. de Silva AM

    (2021) Determining dengue virus serostatus by indirect IgG ELISA compared with focus reduction neutralisation test in children in Cebu, Philippines: a prospective population-based study

    The Lancet Global Health 9:e44–e51.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(20)30392-2

    • Google Scholar
30. Software

    1. Meganck RM

    (2022) Saturation-Mutagenesis-pipeline, version swh:1:rev:def6f74d7c9bec9e52835e4c0fd028bcf3aaf0af

    Software Heritage.

    https://archive.softwareheritage.org/swh:1:dir:05d061a035a79dc2b0abbc336c8b48ecbc248a32;origin=https://github.com/TseLabVirology/Saturation-Mutagenesis-Pipeline;visit=swh:1:snp:a277869bd1e1c18119eb5e67c1b829f1a6f2c65c;anchor=swh:1:rev:def6f74d7c9bec9e52835e4c0fd028bcf3aaf0af
31. 1. Messer WB
    2. Yount B
    3. Hacker KE
    4. Donaldson EF
    5. Huynh JP
    6. de Silva AM
    7. Baric RS

    (2012) Development and characterization of a reverse genetic system for studying dengue virus serotype 3 strain variation and neutralization

    PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 6:e1486.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0001486

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
32. 1. Messina JP
    2. Brady OJ
    3. Golding N
    4. Kraemer MUG
    5. Wint GRW
    6. Ray SE
    7. Pigott DM
    8. Shearer FM
    9. Johnson K
    10. Earl L
    11. Marczak LB
    12. Shirude S
    13. Davis Weaver N
    14. Gilbert M
    15. Velayudhan R
    16. Jones P
    17. Jaenisch T
    18. Scott TW
    19. Reiner RC Jr
    20. Hay SI

    (2019) The current and future global distribution and population at risk of dengue

    Nature Microbiology 4:1508–1515.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-019-0476-8

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
33. 1. Metz SW
    2. Gallichotte EN
    3. Brackbill A
    4. Premkumar L
    5. Miley MJ
    6. Baric R
    7. de Silva AM

    (2017) In vitro assembly and stabilization of dengue and zika virus envelope protein homo-dimers

    Scientific Reports 7:4524.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-04767-6

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
34. 1. Modis Y
    2. Ogata S
    3. Clements D
    4. Harrison SC

    (2004) Structure of the dengue virus envelope protein after membrane fusion

    Nature 427:313–319.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02165

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
35. 1. Oliphant T
    2. Nybakken GE
    3. Engle M
    4. Xu Q
    5. Nelson CA
    6. Sukupolvi-Petty S
    7. Marri A
    8. Lachmi B-E
    9. Olshevsky U
    10. Fremont DH
    11. Pierson TC
    12. Diamond MS

    (2006) Antibody recognition and neutralization determinants on domains I and II of West Nile Virus envelope protein

    Journal of Virology 80:12149–12159.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.01732-06

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
36. 1. Rabaa MA
    2. Girerd-Chambaz Y
    3. Duong Thi Hue K
    4. Vu Tuan T
    5. Wills B
    6. Bonaparte M
    7. van der Vliet D
    8. Langevin E
    9. Cortes M
    10. Zambrano B
    11. Dunod C
    12. Wartel-Tram A
    13. Jackson N
    14. Simmons CP

    (2017) Genetic epidemiology of dengue viruses in phase III trials of the CYD tetravalent dengue vaccine and implications for efficacy

    eLife 6:e24196.

    https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.24196

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
37. 1. Raut R
    2. Corbett KS
    3. Tennekoon RN
    4. Premawansa S
    5. Wijewickrama A
    6. Premawansa G
    7. Mieczkowski P
    8. Rückert C
    9. Ebel GD
    10. De Silva AD
    11. de Silva AM

    (2019) Dengue type 1 viruses circulating in humans are highly infectious and poorly neutralized by human antibodies

    PNAS 116:227–232.

    https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812055115

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
38. 1. Rey FA
    2. Stiasny K
    3. Vaney M-C
    4. Dellarole M
    5. Heinz FX

    (2018) The bright and the dark side of human antibody responses to flaviviruses: lessons for vaccine design

    EMBO Reports 19:206–224.

    https://doi.org/10.15252/embr.201745302

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
39. 1. Rockstroh A
    2. Barzon L
    3. Pacenti M
    4. Palù G
    5. Niedrig M
    6. Ulbert S

    (2015) Recombinant envelope-proteins with mutations in the conserved fusion loop allow specific serological diagnosis of dengue-infections

    PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 9:e0004218.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004218

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
40. 1. Rodenhuis-Zybert IA
    2. van der Schaar HM
    3. da Silva Voorham JM
    4. van der Ende-Metselaar H
    5. Lei H-Y
    6. Wilschut J
    7. Smit JM

    (2010) Immature dengue virus: A veiled pathogen?

    PLOS Pathogens 6:e1000718.

    https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000718

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
41. 1. Rouvinski A
    2. Dejnirattisai W
    3. Guardado-Calvo P
    4. Vaney M-C
    5. Sharma A
    6. Duquerroy S
    7. Supasa P
    8. Wongwiwat W
    9. Haouz A
    10. Barba-Spaeth G
    11. Mongkolsapaya J
    12. Rey FA
    13. Screaton GR

    (2017) Covalently linked dengue virus envelope glycoprotein dimers reduce exposure of the immunodominant fusion loop epitope

    Nature Communications 8:15411.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms15411

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
42. 1. Sharma A
    2. Zhang X
    3. Dejnirattisai W
    4. Dai X
    5. Gong D
    6. Wongwiwat W
    7. Duquerroy S
    8. Rouvinski A
    9. Vaney M-C
    10. Guardado-Calvo P
    11. Haouz A
    12. England P
    13. Sun R
    14. Zhou ZH
    15. Mongkolsapaya J
    16. Screaton GR
    17. Rey FA

    (2021) The epitope arrangement on flavivirus particles contributes to Mab C10’s extraordinary neutralization breadth across Zika and dengue viruses

    Cell 184:6052–6066.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.11.010

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
43. 1. Slon-Campos JL
    2. Dejnirattisai W
    3. Jagger BW
    4. López-Camacho C
    5. Wongwiwat W
    6. Durnell LA
    7. Winkler ES
    8. Chen RE
    9. Reyes-Sandoval A
    10. Rey FA
    11. Diamond MS
    12. Mongkolsapaya J
    13. Screaton GR

    (2019) A protective Zika virus E-dimer-based subunit vaccine engineered to abrogate antibody-dependent enhancement of dengue infection

    Nature Immunology 20:1291–1298.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-019-0477-z

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
44. 1. Smith SA
    2. Zhou Y
    3. Olivarez NP
    4. Broadwater AH
    5. de Silva AM
    6. Crowe JE Jr

    (2012) Persistence of circulating memory B cell clones with potential for dengue virus disease enhancement for decades following infection

    Journal of Virology 86:2665–2675.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.06335-11

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
45. 1. Smith SA
    2. de Alwis AR
    3. Kose N
    4. Harris E
    5. Ibarra KD
    6. Kahle KM
    7. Pfaff JM
    8. Xiang X
    9. Doranz BJ
    10. de Silva AM
    11. Austin SK
    12. Sukupolvi-Petty S
    13. Diamond MS
    14. Crowe JE Jr

    (2013) The potent and broadly neutralizing human dengue virus-specific monoclonal antibody 1C19 reveals a unique cross-reactive epitope on the bc loop of domain II of the envelope protein

    mBio 4:e00873-13.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00873-13

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
46. 1. Tian Y
    2. Grifoni A
    3. Sette A
    4. Weiskopf D

    (2019) Human T cell response to dengue virus infection

    Frontiers in Immunology 10:2125.

    https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2019.02125

    • Google Scholar
47. 1. Tse LV
    2. Klinc KA
    3. Madigan VJ
    4. Castellanos Rivera RM
    5. Wells LF
    6. Havlik LP
    7. Smith JK
    8. Agbandje-McKenna M
    9. Asokan A

    (2017) Structure-guided evolution of antigenically distinct adeno-associated virus variants for immune evasion

    PNAS 114:E4812–E4821.

    https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1704766114

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
48. 1. Tse LV
    2. Meganck RM
    3. Dong S
    4. Adams LE
    5. White LJ
    6. Mallory ML
    7. Jadi R
    8. de Silva AM
    9. Baric RS

    (2022) Generation of Mature DENVs via genetic modification and directed evolution

    mBio 13:e0038622.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/mbio.00386-22

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
49. 1. Waickman AT
    2. Victor K
    3. Li T
    4. Hatch K
    5. Rutvisuttinunt W
    6. Medin C
    7. Gabriel B
    8. Jarman RG
    9. Friberg H
    10. Currier JR

    (2019) Dissecting the heterogeneity of DENV vaccine-elicited cellular immunity using single-cell RNA sequencing and metabolic profiling

    Nature Communications 10:3666.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-11634-7

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
50. 1. Wilder-Smith A

    (2019) Personal View Deliberations of the Strategic Advisory Group of Experts on Immunization on the use of CYD-TDV dengue vaccine The Strategic Advisory Group of Experts (SAGE) on Immunization advises WHO on global policies for vaccines

    In. Lancet Infect Dis 19:e31–e38.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30494-8

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar
51. 1. Young E
    2. Carnahan RH
    3. Andrade DV
    4. Kose N
    5. Nargi RS
    6. Fritch EJ
    7. Munt JE
    8. Doyle MP
    9. White L
    10. Baric TJ
    11. Stoops M
    12. DeSilva A
    13. Tse LV
    14. Martinez DR
    15. Zhu D
    16. Metz S
    17. Wong MP
    18. Espinosa DA
    19. Montoya M
    20. Biering SB
    21. Sukulpolvi-Petty S
    22. Kuan G
    23. Balmaseda A
    24. Diamond MS
    25. Harris E
    26. Crowe JE
    27. Baric RS

    (2020) Identification of dengue virus serotype 3 specific antigenic sites targeted by neutralizing human antibodies

    Cell Host & Microbe 27:710–724.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2020.04.007

    • Google Scholar
52. 1. Young E
    2. Yount B
    3. Pantoja P
    4. Henein S
    5. Meganck RM
    6. McBride J
    7. Munt JE
    8. Baric TJ
    9. Zhu D
    10. Scobey T
    11. Dong S
    12. Tse LV
    13. Martinez MI
    14. Burgos AG
    15. Graham RL
    16. White L
    17. DeSilva A
    18. Sariol CA
    19. Baric RS

    (2023) A live dengue virus vaccine carrying A chimeric envelope glycoprotein elicits dual DENV2-DENV4 serotype-specific immunity

    Nature Communications 14:36702.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-36702-x

    • Google Scholar
53. 1. Zhang S
    2. Li L
    3. Woodson SE
    4. Huang CY-H
    5. Kinney RM
    6. Barrett ADT
    7. Beasley DWC

    (2006) A mutation in the envelope protein fusion loop attenuates mouse neuroinvasiveness of the NY99 strain of West Nile virus

    Virology 353:35–40.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2006.05.025

    • PubMed
    • Google Scholar

Author details

1. Rita M Meganck

   Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, United States

   Contribution

   Conceptualization, Data curation, Software, Formal analysis, Validation, Investigation, Visualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review and editing

   Competing interests

   inventor on a patent application (#63/320,922) filed on the subject matter of the manuscript

2. Deanna Zhu

   Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States

   Contribution

   Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

3. Stephanie Dong

   Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States

   Contribution

   Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

4. Lisa J Snoderly-Foster

   Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, United States

   Contribution

   Data curation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

5. Yago R Dalben

   Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, United States

   Contribution

   Data curation

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

6. Devina Thiono

   Department of Microbiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States

   Contribution

   Resources

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0002-8330-0396

7. Laura J White

   Department of Microbiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States

   Contribution

   Resources

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

8. Arivianda M DeSilva

   Department of Microbiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States

   Contribution

   Resources, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Project administration

   Competing interests

   No competing interests declared

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0003-3317-5950

9. Ralph S Baric

   Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, United States

   Contribution

   Resources, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Project administration

   Competing interests

   member of the advisory board of VaxArt and Invivyd and has collaborations with Takeda, Pfizer, Moderna, Ridgeback Biosciences, Gilead, and Eli Lily. Inventor on a patent application (#63/320,922) filed on the subject matter of the manuscript

10. Longping V Tse

    Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, United States

    Contribution

    Conceptualization, Resources, Data curation, Formal analysis, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Validation, Investigation, Visualization, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – review and editing

    For correspondence

    victor.tse@health.slu.edu

    Competing interests

    Inventor on a patent application (#63/320,922) filed on the subject matter of the manuscript

    "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0001-7582-8396

• 786

  views

• 84

  downloads

• 0

  citations

Views, downloads and citations are aggregated across all versions of this paper published by eLife.