All data generated or analysed during this study are included in the manuscript and supporting files. The previously published genome data for E. coli used in Figure 4B can be accessed here http://regulondb.ccg.unam.mx/menu/download/datasets/files/PromoterSet.txt; V. cholerae here http://www.pnas.org/highwire/filestream/618514/field_highwire_adjunct_files/2/pnas.1500203112.sd02.xlsx; B. methanolicus here https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4342826/bin/12864_2015_1239_MOESM2_ESM.xlsx; M. tuberculosis here https://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S2211124713006153-mmc2.xlsx; and C. crescentus here https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1004831.s012. The previously published genome data for D. melanogaster, C. elegans, A. thaliana, S. cerevisiae, and S. pombe used in Figure 4E can be accessed using the Eukaryotic Promotor Database (https://epd.vital-it.ch).

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Author details

1. Sung Hyun Kim

   Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0001-9272-7036

2. Mahipal Ganji

   Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

3. Eugene Kim

   Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

4. Jaco van der Torre

   Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

5. Elio Abbondanzieri

   Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands

   For correspondence

   elio.abbondanzieri@rochester.edu

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

6. Cees Dekker

   Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands

   For correspondence

   C.Dekker@tudelft.nl

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

   "This ORCID iD identifies the author of this article:" 0000-0001-6273-071X