A DNA molecule can be several meters long and to fit this length inside a cell, it is wrapped around proteins called histones. This compacts the DNA to form a structure known as chromatin; complexes of DNA and histones, called nucleosomes, serve as the building blocks of chromatin.

Cells regulate the organization of chromatin to switch genes ‘on’ and ‘off’. Complexes of proteins, such as SWR1, alter the packing of chromatin and are known as ‘chromatin modifiers’. To express a gene, parts of the chromatin have to unpack to allow various proteins and other factors to access to the underlying DNA. Chromatin remodeling enzymes can loosen chromatin by sliding nucleosomes away from each other, removing them altogether, or replacing one type of histone with another. For example, a histone variant called H2A.Z appears to poise genes for expression and is enriched near the start sites of most genes in the genome. The SWR1 complex evicts the conventional, ‘canonical histone’ called H2A that is already present at these sites and replaces them with H2A.Z.

H2A.Z is related to H2A, and the SWR1 complex can interact with both of these proteins. However, it remains poorly understood how SWR1 can discriminate between the two at the molecular level. Ranjan et al. have now addressed this in budding yeast cells, by constructing hybrids that contain parts of H2A combined with H2A.Z. The experiments revealed that the SWR1 complex recognizes key elements within the histone H2A protein itself that differ from H2A.Z. Binding to H2A activates SWR1 and causes it to replace H2A with H2A.Z.

Ranjan et al. next looked to see if the SWR1 complex also interacts with the DNA present within a nucleosome and whether any gaps in the DNA interfere with histone replacement. The experiments revealed that gaps in DNA at a specific region of the nucleosome prevent SWR1 from depositing H2A.Z. Therefore, close contact between SWR1 and a nucleosome's DNA is another factor that is required for SWR1 activity. These findings provide new insights as to how SWR1 recognizes histone and DNA elements of a canonical nucleosome. Further work is needed to understand how SWR1 acts to replace H2A with H2A.Z.

The histone variant H2A.Z, a universal component of nucleosomes flanking eukaryotic promoters, enhancers, and other genetic elements, has an important role in transcriptional regulation (Santisteban et al., 2000; Albert et al., 2007; Barski et al., 2007). In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, H2A.Z is deposited by the ATP-dependent activity of the multi-component SWI/SNF-related SWR1 complex, which replaces nucleosomal histone H2A-H2B with H2A.Z-H2B in a coupled histone-dimer transfer (Mizuguchi et al., 2004; Luk et al., 2010). SWR1 recruitment to nucleosome-deficient or nucleosome-free regions (NFRs) of yeast promoters is due to its preference for nucleosomes adjoining long linker DNA (Ranjan et al., 2013), but post-recruitment activation of the SWR1 complex requires binding of both its natural substrates—the canonical nucleosome and the H2A.Z-H2B dimer—which also serve as essential activators of SWR1 (Luk et al., 2010). Progression of the SWR1-mediated reaction on the canonical ‘AA’ nucleosome generates the ‘AZ’ and ‘ZZ’ nucleosome states consecutively, which leads to repression of the ATPase and histone exchange activities of SWR1 by the H2A.Z-nucleosome end-product, thereby preventing futile expenditure of chemical energy (Luk et al., 2010). Specific α-C helix residues of H2A.Z on the free H2A.Z-H2B dimer are critical for its SWR1-activating function (Clarkson et al., 1999; Wu et al., 2005). However, the key-activating elements of the canonical nucleosome that distinguish it from the non-activating H2A.Z-nucleosome have been obscure. Here, we show that the histone-fold, but not the α-C helix of histone H2A in the nucleosome, has a major role in the activation of the SWR1 complex. We also define a local DNA site on the nucleosome core particle that is critical for activating SWR1.

To identify elements of histone H2A on the canonical nucleosome that activate SWR1, we constructed hybrids in which H2A segments were systematically interchanged with segments of histone H2A.Z. Hybrid nucleosome substrates were reconstituted and analyzed by a SWR1-mediated histone H2A.Z replacement assay. Interchanging the M6 and α-C regions of H2A with H2A.Z on the nucleosome had only a small effect on SWR1 activity as measured by nucleosomal incorporation of H2A.Z-3xFlag, which generates a native gel mobility upshift (Figure 1A). Strikingly, an additional interchange of the M4 domain of nucleosomal H2A with H2A.Z caused a ∼90% decrease in H2A.Z replacement by SWR1, and extension of the interchange to M2 and M3 domains further reduced SWR1's activity (Figure 1A). Interchanging the M4 domain alone caused a large reduction in activity of SWR1, and activity was also reduced by interchange of M5 and M3A domains individually, whereas M2 and M3B domain interchanges had minimal effects (Figure 1B,C). Thus, residues contained entirely within the H2A histone-fold motif (the α1 helix, α2 helix, and loop 2) contribute to activation of SWR1. Underlying mechanism(s) could include improved enzyme binding, as the non-activating H2A.Z-nucleosome shows slightly decreased affinity for SWR1 (Figure 1—figure supplement 1), but activation at a post-recruitment step is required, because neither ATPase stimulation nor histone replacement occurs under saturating conditions ([Luk et al., 2010] and data not shown). Interchange of the M4 region of H2A for H2A.Z (substitution of five residues) in yeast causes lethality (Figure 1—figure supplement 2A). This indicates that the N-terminal portion of the H2A α2 helix provides an essential function apart from regulating SWR1 activity, which itself is not essential for viability. Glycine 47 is the only surface accessible H2A-specific residue in the M4 region. Strains bearing single or double amino acid substitutions to corresponding H2A.Z residues-G47K and P49A are viable. The single P49A substitution showed no reduction (even an increase) of H2A.Z levels at gene promoters by ChIP-PCR. However, the G47K interchange in the M4 region shows reduced H2A.Z incorporation (average 63% of WT), as does the double-substitution G47K, P49A (average 54% of WT), suggesting that G47 facilitates activation of SWR1 in vivo (Figure 1—figure supplement 2B).

Figure 1 with 3 supplements see all

Download asset Open asset

We next investigated the role of nucleosomal DNA. Previous studies have established the importance of specific DNA contacts by ATP-dependent chromatin remodelers (Mueller-Planitz et al., 2013; Bartholomew, 2014). In vitro, SWR1 is known to bind preferentially to long linker DNA adjacent to a nucleosome core particle (Ranjan et al., 2013). To favor SWR1 binding in one orientation, we reconstituted mono-nucleosomes bearing only one 60 bp linker and subjected bound nucleosomes to hydroxyl radical footprinting (Figure 2A). Notably, we observed protection at superhelix locations (SHLs) SHL0, SHL+1, and SHL+2 on the linker-distal side of the nucleosome dyad (Figure 2B,C; Figure 2—figure supplement 1). Strongest protection was observed at SHL2, where other ATP-dependent chromatin remodelers have been shown to interact with the nucleosome, but on the linker-proximal or both sides of dyad (Bartholomew, 2014). We also observed broad protection from hydroxyl radical cleavage of long linker DNA by SWR1 (Figure 2D), consistent with previous findings (Ranjan et al., 2013).

Figure 2 with 1 supplement see all

Download asset Open asset

Furthermore, we examined how gaps in nucleosomal DNA interfere with histone replacement by SWR1. Systematic introduction of two-nucleotide gaps on one DNA strand of a nucleosome showed that a single gap at −17, −18 nt from the nucleosome dyad blocked the second round of H2A.Z replacement (Figure 3A). Further scanning identified a 6 nt region (−17 to −22 nt from the dyad), whose integrity is required for histone replacement (Figure 3B). This gap-sensitive region overlaps with the hydroxyl radical footprint of linker-oriented SWR1 at nucleosome position SHL2. Introduction of gaps on both sides of the nucleosome dyad caused a complete failure of H2A.Z replacement by SWR1 (Figure 3C). Taken together, our findings indicate that close contact between SWR1 and nucleosomal DNA around SHL2 is critical for enzyme activation. This activation likely occurs post-recruitment, as SWR1 binding is not adversely affected on the gap-containing nucleosome substrate (Figure 3—figure supplement 1).

Figure 3 with 2 supplements see all

Download asset Open asset

To date, all chromatin remodelers examined are able to mobilize positioned nucleosome in vitro, including the strongly positioned 601 nucleosome (Lowary and Widom, 1998; Becker and Workman, 2013; Bartholomew, 2014). SWR1 quantitatively evicts both H2A-H2B dimers on this nucleosome, replacing them with H2A.Z-H2B, but whether nucleosome positioning was also altered was unknown. To examine this question, we used a 601 nucleosome bearing a 60 bp linker on one side, and a native PAGE mobility assay, which separates nucleosomes on the basis of different linker lengths and spatial orientation (Hamiche et al., 1999). We found no substantial mobility shift indicative of a repositioned nucleosome after incorporation of (untagged) H2A.Z-H2B (Figure 4A). Similar results were obtained for a center-positioned 601 nucleosome (data not shown). By contrast, the INO80 remodeler mobilized the nucleosome from the end- to center-position, as shown by gel mobility shift (Figure 4A) (Shen et al., 2000; Udugama et al., 2011). For a more discerning technique, we mapped the precise position of AA, AZ, and ZZ nucleosomes after histone H2A.Z replacement by hydroxyl radical footprinting (Figure 4B). Strikingly, at single nucleotide resolution, there was no net change of the 601 nucleosome position after it underwent one or two rounds of histone H2A.Z replacement (Figure 4C).

Figure 4

Download asset Open asset

We have identified elements of the canonical nucleosome that activate the SWR1 complex for histone H2A.Z replacement. A DNA site at SHL2 on the nucleosome, in a region identified for DNA translocation by chromatin remodelers RSC, SWI/SNF, ISW2, and ISW1, is also important for histone exchange by SWR1. The ATPase domains of the SNF2 and ISW2 nucleosome sliding complexes are known to interact with the nucleosome at SHL2 (Dang and Bartholomew, 2007; Dechassa et al., 2012), and we envision that the catalytic Swr1 ATPase also contacts the SHL2 site. Footprinting experiments show that other chromatin remodelers contact the nucleosome core particle at either the linker-proximal side or both sides of the dyad axis; however, SWR1 contacts the core particle on the linker-distal side of the dyad. This distinction between SWR1 and other remodelers may reflect the unique requirements of dimer eviction and deposition as opposed to nucleosome sliding. Within the nucleosome core particle, each H2A-H2B dimer is stabilized by histone–DNA interactions (at three minor groove locations SHL3.5, SHL4.5, and SHL5.5) and histone–histone interactions (the α2 and α3 helices of H2B interact with α2 and α3 helices of H4 in a four-helix bundle). For histone exchange, SWR1 must disrupt either one or both of these interactions, coordinated with H2A.Z-H2B deposition. This might be initiated by transient, confined DNA translocation by the SWR1 ATPase essentially as indicated for other remodelers (Clapier and Cairns, 2009; Mueller-Planitz et al., 2013), but without propagation as histone exchange is not accompanied by repositioning of the histone octamer on DNA. Alternatively, histone replacement could be initiated by a local, ATP-driven DNA conformational change near SHL2 that alters the path of the DNA superhelix, resulting in destabilization of H2A-H2B contacts with DNA or with the H3-H4 tetramer (Figure 3—figure supplement 2).

In budding yeast, the +1 nucleosome flanked on one side by a NFR would orient SWR1 to interact with the linker-distal face. We speculate that this configuration favors replacement of the H2A-H2B dimer on the NFR-distal side (Figure 2—figure supplement 1, Figure 3—figure supplement 2). Consistent with this possibility, recent genome-wide sub-nucleosomal mapping shows enrichment of H2A.Z at the NFR-distal face of the +1 nucleosome (Rhee et al., 2014).

Earlier work has shown that the structures of H2A- and H2A.Z-containing nucleosomes show prominent differences in the region C-terminal to the histone-fold domain (Suto et al., 2000). This C-terminal region is important for binding of the free H2A.Z-H2B dimer to specific chaperones (Luk et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2008; Hong et al., 2014), and for effector interactions post-incorporation (Clarkson et al., 1999; Adam et al., 2001). For histone H2A.Z replacement, our analysis shows that SWR1 utilizes other unique and conserved features of the H2A nucleosome for substrate specificity. Of the three SWR1-activating regions of the H2A histone-fold, the α2 helix and loop 2 are exposed on the nucleosome surface for contact with SWR1, whereas the α1 helix is buried and may act by allostery (Figure 1—figure supplement 3A). Residue G47 of the H2A α2 helix is highly conserved and is located at the bottom of a cleft (∼8 Å deep) on the H2A nucleosome surface (Figure 1—figure supplement 3B). This cleft might serve as a structural feature for recognition by SWR1; the presence of a Lysine residue at this position in H2A.Z would fill it (Figure 1—figure supplement 3B). It would be of interest to determine structural interactions of SWR1 with this local nucleosome surface. Our findings provide new insights on the structural basis by which canonical and H2A.Z-nucleosomes are recognized by SWR1 and should facilitate future studies of the histone H2A.Z replacement mechanism.

Supplemental information includes six figures and a list of strains used.

1. 1. Adam M
   2. Robert F
   3. Larochelle M
   4. Gaudreau L

   (2001) H2A.Z is required for global chromatin integrity and for recruitment of RNA polymerase II under specific conditions

   Molecular and Cellular Biology 21:6270–6279.

   https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.21.18.6270-6279.2001

   • Google Scholar
2. 1. Albert I
   2. Mavrich TN
   3. Tomsho LP
   4. Qi J
   5. Zanton SJ
   6. Schuster SC
   7. Pugh BF

   (2007) Translational and rotational settings of H2A.Z nucleosomes across the Saccharomyces cerevisiae genome

   Nature 446:572–576.

   https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05632

   • Google Scholar
3. 1. Barski A
   2. Cuddapah S
   3. Cui K
   4. Roh TY
   5. Schones DE
   6. Wang Z
   7. Wei G
   8. Chepelev I
   9. Zhao K

   (2007) High-resolution profiling of histone methylations in the human genome

   Cell 129:823–837.

   https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2007.05.009

   • Google Scholar
4. 1. Bartholomew B

   (2014) Regulating the chromatin landscape: structural and mechanistic perspectives

   Annual Review of Biochemistry 83:671–696.

   https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-biochem-051810-093157

   • Google Scholar
5. 1. Becker PB
   2. Workman JL

   (2013) Nucleosome remodeling and epigenetics

   Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology 5:a017905.

   https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a017905

   • Google Scholar
6. 1. Clapier CR
   2. Cairns BR

   (2009) The biology of chromatin remodeling complexes

   Annual Review of Biochemistry 78:273–304.

   https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.77.062706.153223

   • Google Scholar
7. 1. Clarkson MJ
   2. Wells JR
   3. Gibson F
   4. Saint R
   5. Tremethick DJ

   (1999) Regions of variant histone His2AvD required for Drosophila development

   Nature 399:694–697.

   https://doi.org/10.1038/21436

   • Google Scholar
8. 1. Dang W
   2. Bartholomew B

   (2007) Domain architecture of the catalytic subunit in the ISW2-nucleosome complex

   Molecular and Cellular Biology 27:8306–8317.

   https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.01351-07

   • Google Scholar
9. 1. Dechassa ML
   2. Hota SK
   3. Sen P
   4. Chatterjee N
   5. Prasad P
   6. Bartholomew B

   (2012) Disparity in the DNA translocase domains of SWI/SNF and ISW2

   Nucleic Acids Research 40:4412–4421.

   https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gks007

   • Google Scholar
10. 1. Hamiche A
    2. Sandaltzopoulos R
    3. Gdula DA
    4. Wu C

    (1999) ATP-dependent histone octamer sliding mediated by the chromatin remodeling complex NURF

    Cell 97:833–842.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80796-5

    • Google Scholar
11. 1. Hirschhorn JN
    2. Bortvin AL
    3. Ricupero-Hovasse SL
    4. Winston F

    (1995)

    A new class of histone H2A mutations in Saccharomyces cerevisiae causes specific transcriptional defects in vivo

    Molecular and Cellular Biology 15:1999–2009.

    • Google Scholar
12. 1. Hong J
    2. Feng H
    3. Wang F
    4. Ranjan A
    5. Chen J
    6. Jiang J
    7. Ghirlando R
    8. Xiao TS
    9. Wu C
    10. Bai Y

    (2014) The catalytic subunit of the SWR1 remodeler is a histone chaperone for the H2A.Z-H2B dimer

    Molecular Cell 53:498–505.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2014.01.010

    • Google Scholar
13. 1. Kurdistani SK
    2. Grunstein M

    (2003) In vivo protein-protein and protein-DNA crosslinking for genomewide binding microarray

    Methods 31:90–95.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S1046-2023(03)00092-6

    • Google Scholar
14. 1. Lowary PT
    2. Widom J

    (1998) New DNA sequence rules for high affinity binding to histone octamer and sequence-directed nucleosome positioning

    Journal of Molecular Biology 276:19–42.

    https://doi.org/10.1006/jmbi.1997.1494

    • Google Scholar
15. 1. Luger K
    2. Rechsteiner TJ
    3. Flaus AJ
    4. Waye MM
    5. Richmond TJ

    (1997) Characterization of nucleosome core particles containing histone proteins made in bacteria

    Journal of Molecular Biology 272:301–311.

    https://doi.org/10.1006/jmbi.1997.1235

    • Google Scholar
16. 1. Luger K
    2. Rechsteiner TJ
    3. Richmond TJ

    (1999) Expression and purification of recombinant histones and nucleosome reconstitution

    Methods in Molecular Biology 119:1–16.

    https://doi.org/10.1385/1-59259-681-9:1

    • Google Scholar
17. 1. Luk E
    2. Ranjan A
    3. Fitzgerald PC
    4. Mizuguchi G
    5. Huang Y
    6. Wei D
    7. Wu C

    (2010) Stepwise histone replacement by SWR1 requires dual activation with histone H2A.Z and canonical nucleosome

    Cell 143:725–736.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2010.10.019

    • Google Scholar
18. 1. Luk E
    2. Vu ND
    3. Patteson K
    4. Mizuguchi G
    5. Wu WH
    6. Ranjan A
    7. Backus J
    8. Sen S
    9. Lewis M
    10. Bai Y
    11. Wu C

    (2007) Chz1, a nuclear chaperone for histone H2AZ

    Molecular Cell 25:357–368.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molcel.2006.12.015

    • Google Scholar
19. 1. Mizuguchi G
    2. Shen X
    3. Landry J
    4. Wu WH
    5. Sen S
    6. Wu C

    (2004) ATP-driven exchange of histone H2AZ variant catalyzed by SWR1 chromatin remodeling complex

    Science 303:343–348.

    https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1090701

    • Google Scholar
20. 1. Mueller-Planitz F
    2. Klinker H
    3. Becker PB

    (2013) Nucleosome sliding mechanisms: new twists in a looped history

    Nature Structural & Molecular Biology 20:1026–1032.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb.2648

    • Google Scholar
21. 1. Ranjan A
    2. Mizuguchi G
    3. Fitzgerald PC
    4. Wei D
    5. Wang F
    6. Huang Y
    7. Luk E
    8. Woodcock CL
    9. Wu C

    (2013) Nucleosome-free region dominates histone acetylation in targeting SWR1 to promoters for H2A.Z replacement

    Cell 154:1232–1245.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2013.08.005

    • Google Scholar
22. 1. Rhee HS
    2. Bataille AR
    3. Zhang L
    4. Pugh BF

    (2014) Subnucleosomal structures and nucleosome asymmetry across a genome

    Cell 159:1377–1388.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2014.10.054

    • Google Scholar
23. 1. Santisteban MS
    2. Kalashnikova T
    3. Smith MM

    (2000) Histone H2A.Z regulats transcription and is partially redundant with nucleosome remodeling complexes

    Cell 103:411–422.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)00133-1

    • Google Scholar
24. 1. Schwanbeck R
    2. Xiao H
    3. Wu C

    (2004) Spatial contacts and nucleosome step Movements Induced by the Nurf chromatin remodeling complex

    The Journal of Biological Chemistry 279:39933–39941.

    https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M406060200

    • Google Scholar
25. 1. Shen X
    2. Mizuguchi G
    3. Hamiche A
    4. Wu C

    (2000) A chromatin remodelling complex involved in transcription and DNA processing

    Nature 406:541–544.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/35020123

    • Google Scholar
26. 1. Sun ZW
    2. Allis CD

    (2002) Ubiquitination of histone H2B regulates H3 methylation and gene silencing in yeast

    Nature 418:104–108.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/nature00883

    • Google Scholar
27. 1. Suto RK
    2. Clarkson MJ
    3. Tremethick DJ
    4. Luger K

    (2000) Crystal structure of a nucleosome core particle containing the variant histone H2A.Z

    Nature Structural Biology 7:1121–1124.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/81971

    • Google Scholar
28. 1. Udugama M
    2. Sabri A
    3. Bartholomew B

    (2011) The INO80 ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complex is a nucleosome spacing factor

    Molecular and Cellular Biology 31:662–673.

    https://doi.org/10.1128/MCB.01035-10

    • Google Scholar
29. 1. Vary JC Jr
    2. Fazzio TG
    3. Tsukiyama T

    (2004) Assembly of yeast chromatin using Iswi complexes

    Methods in Enzymology 375:88–102.

    https://doi.org/10.1016/S0076-6879(03)75006-X

    • Google Scholar
30. 1. Venters BJ
    2. Pugh BF

    (2009) A canonical promoter organization of the transcription machinery and its regulators in the Saccharomyces genome

    Genome Research 19:360–371.

    https://doi.org/10.1101/gr.084970.108

    • Google Scholar
31. 1. Wu WH
    2. Alami S
    3. Luk E
    4. Wu CH
    5. Sen S
    6. Mizuguchi G
    7. Wei D
    8. Wu C

    (2005) Swc2 is a widely conserved H2AZ-binding module essential for ATP-dependent histone exchange

    Nature Structural & Molecular Biology 12:1064–1071.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb1023

    • Google Scholar
32. 1. Zhou Z
    2. Feng H
    3. Hansen DF
    4. Kato H
    5. Luk E
    6. Freedberg DI
    7. Kay LE
    8. Wu C
    9. Bai Y

    (2008) NMR structure of chaperone Chz1 complexed with histones H2A.Z-H2B

    Nature Structural & Molecular Biology 15:868–869.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb.1465

    • Google Scholar
33. 1. Zofall M
    2. Persinger J
    3. Kassabov SR
    4. Bartholomew B

    (2006) Chromatin remodeling by ISW2 and SWI/SNF requires DNA translocation inside the nucleosome

    Nature Structural & Molecular Biology 13:339–346.

    https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb1071

    • Google Scholar

Author details

1. Anand Ranjan

   Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States

   Contribution

   AR, Conception and design, Acquisition of data, Analysis and interpretation of data, Drafting or revising the article

   For correspondence

   ranjana@janelia.hhmi.org

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

2. Feng Wang

   Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States

   Contribution

   FW, Provided Reagents

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

3. Gaku Mizuguchi

   Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States

   Contribution

   GM, Advised on plasmid shuffle and ChIP experiments

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

4. Debbie Wei

   Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States

   Contribution

   DW, Provided Reagents

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

5. Yingzi Huang

   Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States

   Contribution

   YH, Provided Reagents

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

6. Carl Wu

   1. Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
   2. Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, United States

   Contribution

   CW, Conception and design, Drafting or revising the article

   For correspondence

   wuc@janelia.hhmi.org

   Competing interests

   The authors declare that no competing interests exist.

• 3,208

  views

• 887

  downloads

• 47

  citations

Views, downloads and citations are aggregated across all versions of this paper published by eLife.